ࡱ> $rstuvwxyz{|}~Y+bjbjWW!==' z$]   &  T   V* '"2'2'2'.AGsSuSuSuSuSuSuS$|WpYS- J5-.JJSqK6 6 2'2'qKqKqKJ6 82' 2'sS 6 6 6 6 JsSqKqKRGSn  gS 2'L} J_S# 616.8-06:616.1/.4  56.12  88 @>9B830< ., @8AB80= ., 04 .  88 A8E>A><0B8G5A:0O <548F8=0: @0B:. CG51=. / 5@ A =5<. .. 1CE>20, .. @C5=:0; @548A;. .. AB@>3;07>20.  .: -"  &, 1999. - 376 A. ISBN 5-88816-056-3 =830 ?@54AB02;O5B A>1>9 >@838=0;L=>5 @C:>2>4AB2> ?> ?A8E>A><0B8:5, 2 :>B>@>< 87;>65=K >A=>2K MB>9 A@02=8B5;L=> <>;>4>9 >B@0A;8 <548F8=A:>9 =0C:8 8 ?>42545=K 8B>38 55 @0728B8O. >4>1=>5 8740=85 2KE>48B =0 @CAA:>< O7K:5 2?5@2K5.  :=835 ?@54AB02;5=K :0: >1I85 ?>;>65=8O 8 ?>=OB8O ?A8E>A><0B8:8, 8AB>@8G5A:89 >G5@:, B0: 8 <5B>4K 4803=>AB8:8 8 ;5G5=8O ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8E @0AAB@>9AB2. A25I5=K B0:65 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:85 0A?5:BK @07;8G=KE 3@C?? 701>;520=89, 15@5<5==>AB8, 2708<>>B=>H5=89 2@0G0 8 1>;L=>3> 8 4@. 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Kissen, 1966]. @>3=>AB8G5A:85 AA;54>20=8O (8AA;54>20=85 ?@54A:070=8O  8AA;54>20=85 >68405<>3>) 0 >A=>25 :;8=8G5A:8E =01;N45=89 <>3CB 2>7=8:0BL 38?>B57K, :>B>@K5 ?@>25@ONB ?CBQ< 87CG5=8O ?@54A:070=8O. @54A:070B5;L=0O F5==>ABL B0:8E 38?>B57 ?@>O2;O5BAO 2 B><, =0A:>;L:> 25;8:> G8A;> ?@028;L=KE ?@54A:070=89. @8 MB>< >1@0I0NB 2=8<0=85 :0: =0 ?>:070B5;8 A><0B8G5A:>3> 701>;520=8O, B0: 8 =0 ?A8E>;>38G5A:85 ?>:070B5;8. @8 8AA;54>20=88 >68405<>3> >F5=820NB >?@545;Q==K5 ?>?C;OF88 A 8E A><0B8G5A:8<8 8 ?A8E8G5A:8<8 ?>:070B5;O<8, :>B>@K5 70B5< =0 1>;55 ?>74=59 AB0488 701>;520=8O A@02=820NB A 8<52H8<8AO @0=55 ?A8E>;>38G5A:8<8 8 A><0B8G5A:8<8 ?>:070B5;O<8. #!/ "/ /   !%!"'!% /% A8E>A><0B8:0 2>7=8:;0 2 8AB>@8:5-<548F8=A:>< 0A?5:B5 :0: 0=B8B570 >4=>AB>@>==5<C >@30=>F5=B@8G5A:><C 2>A?@8OB8N 1>;57=8, :>B>@>5 >B@K205B G5;>25:0 >B >:@C60NI53> <8@0. 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chepank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chepank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rautigam, 1990; . Ernst, 1984].  ?5@594QB ;8 >1CA;>2;5==>5 48A?>78F859 701>;520=85 A=>20 2 ;0B5=BCN D>@<C, 7028A8B >B 40;L=59H8E CA;>289 687=8, >B CA?5E0 ;5G5=8O 8 =5 <5=55 G0AB> >B A>F80;L=>9 ?>445@6:8 A> AB>@>=K >:@C60NI8E. 03;O4=K< O2;O5BAO A2>53> @>40 5AB5AB25==K9 M:A?5@8<5=B A @>645=85< 1;87=5F>2, :>B>@K9 ?@8 A>2@5<5==KE <5B>40E 8AA;54>20=89 ?>72>;O5B =09B8 >B25BK =0 2>?@>AK > 2708<>7028A8<>AB8 ?@54@0A?>;>65==>AB8 8 2;8O=8O >:@C60NI59 A@54K. ;87=5F>2K9 5B>4 8 @>1;5<0B8:0 @54@0A?>;>65==>ABL-:@C60NI0O !@540 ;0AA8G5A:89 1;87=5F>2K9 <5B>4 . Siemens (1924) >A=>2K205BAO, 2 G0AB=>AB8, =0 A@02=5=88 35=5B8G5A:8 >4=>@>4=KE >4=>O9F>2KE 8 35=5B8G5A:8 @07=>@>4=KE 42CO9F52KE 1;87=5F>2. # =0A;54AB25==> >4=>@>4=KE >4=>O9F>2KE 1;87=5F>2 >B<5G05BAO 2KA>:0O, 0 C 42CO9F>2KE  =87:0O :>=:>@40=B=>ABL, GB> C:07K205B (?@8 AB0B8AB8G5A:>9 >1@01>B:5) =0 C45;L=K9 25A =0A;54AB25==KE D0:B>@>2, 2 B>< G8A;5 8 ?@8 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8E 701>;520=8OE. @8 MB>< 2 <5B>48G5A:>< ?;0=5 =5>1E>48<> >1@0I0BL 2=8<0=85 =0 A;54CNI55: 1. 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A;8 :;0AA8G5A:89 1;87=5F>2K9 <5B>4 >A=>20= =0 ?@54AB02;5=88 > AE>4AB25 8;8 4065 845=B8G=>AB8 2;8O=8O A@54K C 1;87=5F>2, B> 4;O 4>:070B5;LAB20 MB>3> 2;8O=8O F5;5A>>1@07=K 420 ?CB8 8AA;54>20=8O: 87CG5=85 AC4L1K , 2K@>AH8E >B45;L=>, 8 87CG5=85 2>?@>A0, 2 GQ< @0AE>4OBAO ?CB8 @0728B8O 48A:>@40=B=KE 1;87=5F>2 8 :0:85 2;8O=8O A@54K A?>A>1AB2CNB ?>O2;5=8N @07;8G89 2 8E @0728B88 (48A:>@40=B=K9 0=0;87 ). 5B>4 >15A?5G5=8O A?;>H=>9 2K1>@:8 ?@8=OB 0BA:8< @538AB@>< 1;87=5F>2, :>B>@K9 A 1954 3. ?KB05BAO 8AA;54>20BL 2A5 @>645=8O 1;87=5F>2 2 40BA:>9 ?>?C;OF88 [. Harvald 8 . Hauge, 1968]. @C3>9 ?CBL  :;8=8G5A:8 >@85=B8@>20==K5 8AA;54>20=8O 1;87=5F>2, :0: MB> 45;05B $5@HCM@ (Verschuer). 0BA:85 8AA;54>20B5;8 1;87=5F>2 2 A2>59 ?C1;8:0F88 > AB5?5=8 :>=:>@40=B=>AB8 C =0A;54AB25==> 845=B8G=KE  8 =0A;54AB25==> =5845=B8G=KE  ?@825;8 40==K5 > @0AA<0B@8205<KE ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8E 701>;520=8OE (B01;. 2). @8<5G0B5;L=K< 745AL O2;O5BAO B>, GB> ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8<8 2 C7:>< A<KA;5 A;>20 AB0;8 B5 701>;520=8O, ?@8 :>B>@KE 2KO28;8AL GQB:85 @07;8G8O. >;57=8, ?@8 :>B>@KE MB8 @07;8G8O >BACBAB2CNB (=0?@8<5@, @0:), 2>7=8:0NB A:>@55 ?>4 2>7459AB285< =5A?5F8D8G5A:8E 2=5H=8E D0:B>@>2 (?8I52K5 ?@>4C:BK, >1@07 687=8, ?@>4>;68B5;L=>ABL :C@5=8O 8 B.4.). >?C;OF88 1>;L=KE 1;87=5F>2 8AA;54>20; $5@HCM@. = 2K18@0; 2 AB0F8>=0@0E 1>;L=KE, 0 70B5< @5B@>A?5:B82=> ?>;CG0; A2545=8O 87 703A>2 > @>645=88 1;87=5F>2, :>B>@KE 2?>A;54AB288 A8AB5<0B8G5A:8 >1A;54>20;8 4> B5E ?>@, ?>:0 >=8 1K;8 4>ABC?=K. @8 MB>< >B18@0;8 B>;L:>  >4=>3> ?>;0, B0: :0: @07=>?>;K5 1;87=5FK A>AB02;ONB 8=>9 20@80=B (B01;.3). !8AB5<0B8G5A:89 0=0;87 A5@89 1;87=5F>2 $5@HCM@0 A2845B5;LAB2CNB > :>=:>@40=B=KE A>>B=>H5=8OE  ?> A@02=5=8N A . >A:>;L:C MB8 A5@88 2:;NG0;8 >B=>A8B5;L=> =51>;LH>5 :>;8G5AB2> 1>;L=KE, =5;L7O >6840BL ?>;=>3> A>2?045=8O @57C;LB0B>2 8AA;54>20=89 . Harvald 8 . Hauge (1968) A @57C;LB0B0<8 $5@HCM@0. 4=0:> >G5284=>, GB> 2 >1>8E A;CG0OE =01;N405BAO >48=0:>20O B5=45=F8O: ?@8 B0: =07K205<KE ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8E 701>;520=8OE ACI5AB2C5B GQB:0O 48DD5@5=F8@>2:0 <564C  8 . A;8 ?@5>1;0405B 2;8O=85 A@54K, MB0 B5=45=F8O >BACBAB2C5B. "01;8F0 2 >=:>@40=B=>ABL 1;87=5F>2 ?> >?@545;Q==K< 701>;520=8O< ?@8 >1A;54>20=88 4368 ?0@ >4=>3> ?>;0 2 0BA:>< @538AB@5 1;87=5F>2 [. Harvald 8 . Hauge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owlby, 1960] C1548B5;L=> ?@>45<>=AB@8@>20; B@02<8@CNI55 7=0G5=85 @07@K20 A2O78 45B59 A 2>A?8B0B5;O<8, :>B>@K9 ?@>8AE>48B <564C 2B>@K< 8 G5B2Q@BK< 3>4>< 687=8. @8 MB>< >A>1>5 2=8<0=85 >= C45;8; 2>?@>AC, ?@82>48B ;8 MB> : AB>9:8< 87<5=5=8O< ;8G=>AB8, ?>AB>O==>9 ?A8E8G5A:>9 ;018;L=>AB8 8 @0=8<>AB8, 0 B0:65 CI5@1=>AB8 A2>53> /. :07K205BAO, GB> 1>;55 ?>74=85 ?>78B82=K5 2;8O=8O =5 <>3CB A3;048BL ?@56=85 B@02<8@CNI85 ?5@56820=8O, > GQ< A2845B5;LAB2CNB :0B0<=5AB8G5A:85 8AA;54>20=8O 4><0H=8E 45B59 [!. Ernst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chepank, 1971]. 0A;C6820NB 2=8<0=8O =01;N45=8O 2 ?;0=5 A>88>35=570 =0 ?@8<5@5 AC4L1K 1;87=5F>2 ?@8 G0AB> 2>7=8:0NI59 48DD5@5=F8@>2:5 @>;59 C =0A;54AB25==> >4=>@>4=KE . ">, GB> =01;N405BAO ?@8 ?A8E>70E 8 =52@>70E, 2>7=8:05B 8 ?@8 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8E @50:F8OE: 4><8=8@CNI89 1;87=5F 701>;5205B @565, G5< 7028A8<K9, => 5A;8 >= 701>;5205B, B> 1>;57=L C =53> ?@>B5:05B ;53G5. = 28B0;L=> <5=55 @0=8<, G5< 53> 42>9=8: [. Schepank, I971]. -B8 4><8=0=B=>-?>4G8=Q==K5 >B=>H5=8O C  =0?><8=0NB >?KBK =0 BC?09OE  >G5=L 8=B5@5A=KE 2 A>F80;L=>< ?;0=5 ?@54AB028B5;OE A5<59AB20 ?>;C>157LO= >B@O40 ?@8<0B>2 [Hoist, 1991; R. Bilz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immer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Cannon) 8 A8AB5<0B8G5A:85 M:A?5@8<5=BK 0;LB5@0 %5AA0 (W. Hess) A @074@065=85< <>73>2KE F5=B@>2 ?>:070;8, GB> >48=0:>2K5 M<>F8>=0GL=K5, 2535B0B82=K5 8 3>@<>=0;L=K5 @50:F88 <>3CB 1KBL >1CA;>2;5=K :0: 2=5H=8<8 @074@068B5;O<8, B0: 8 AB8<C;OF859 >?@545;Q==KE <>73>2KE F5=B@>2. -:A?5@8<5=BK ?@>2>48;8AL 2 >A=>2=>< =0 ?>4:>@:>2KE >1@07>20=8OE  B0;0<CA5 8 38?>B0;0<CA5.  AB@C:BC@5 F5=B@0;L=>9 =5@2=>9 A8AB5<K ;8<18G5A:0O A8AB5<0 83@05B 254CICN @>;L 2 @53C;OF88 0DD5:B82=>9 687=8 8 ?>2545=8O, DC=:F89 2535B0B82=>9 =5@2=>9 A8AB5<K, A5:AC0;L=KE ?@>F5AA>2 8 ?@>F5AA>2 >1CG5=8O (B5@<8= ;8<18G5A:89, ;8<1CA ?@>8AE>48B >B ;0B8=A:>3> limbus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elgado). 8<18G5A:0O A8AB5<0 [P. McLean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orenz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chnudt 8 G.Thewes, 1983]. !% - /  !% #/ >60;C9, 2 ?A8E>A><0B8:5 =5B 4@C38E >1;0AB59, :>B>@K5 ?@5B5@?5;8 1K 2 ?>A;54=55 2@5<O AB>;L 4@0<0B8G5A:>5 @0728B85, :0: =59@>M=4>:@8-=>;>38O 8 ?A8E>8<<C=>;>38O. 5=55 G5< 70 10 ;5B 8AA;54>20B5;8 >1=0@C68;8 =>2K5 =59@>0:B82=K5 AC1AB0=F88 A 8E A;>6=K<8 <5E0=87<0<8 ?5@540G8 A83=0;>2, 0 B0:65 =58725AB=K5 4> A8E ?>@ @53C;OB>@=K5 A8AB5<K, B0: GB> 4065 C7:8< A?5F80;8AB0< 1K205B B@C4=> A45;0BL :@8B8G5A:89 >17>@ ?> MB>9 ?@>1;5<5. !@548 CG0AB=8:>2 MB8E 8AA;54>20=89 2 @07=KE 48AF8?;8=0E (=59@>0=0B><8O, =59@>E8<8O, =59@>D878>;>38O, <>;5:C;O@=0O 18>;>38O, M=4>:@8=>;>38O, 8<<C=>;>38O, ?A8E>;>38O, ?A8E>0=0;87, :;8=8G5A:0O ?A8E>A><0B8:0) 3>A?>4AB2C5B <=5=85, GB> A;54C5B >6840BL =5:>53> 2A5>1J5<;NI53> 27@K20. 0: MB> >1JOA=8BL? <<C==K5 8 2 <5=LH59 <5@5 M=4>:@8==K5 ?@>F5AAK 4> A8E ?>@ :070;8AL 2 4>AB0B>G=>9 <5@5 02B>=><=K<8, <0;> A2O70==K<8 A >AB0;L=K<8 DC=:F8>=0;L=K<8 A8AB5<0<8. >A;54=85 40==K5 A >G5284=>ABLN 4>:07K20NB, GB> M=4>:@8==K5 8 8<<C==K5 DC=:F88 2> 2A5< >@30=87<5 ?@54AB02;ONB A>1>9 8=B53@0;L=K5 A8AB5<K A <=>3>>1@07=K<8 ?@O<K<8 8 =5?@O<K<8 A2O7O<8, >A>15==> A F5=B@0;L=>9 8 2535B0B82=>9 =5@2=>9 A8AB5<>9, 8 G5@57 =8E  A >:@C60NI8< <8@><. >8A:8 <5480B>@>2  18>;>38G5A:8E ?>A@54=8:>2 8 ?5@540BG8:>2 <564C M<>F8>=0;L=> >:@0H5==K<8 2>A?@8OB8O<8, ?A8E8:>9 8 A><0B8G5A:8< A8<?B><>>1@07>20-=85<  2?5@2K5 >:070;8AL 25AL<0 ?>;57=K<8. @8 D878G5A:>9 8 ?A8E8G5A:>9 C3@>75, 3>;>45 8 60645, 2 @53C;OF88 @8B<0 A=0 8 1>4@AB2>20=8O, B5<?5@0BC@K B5;0 8 2>A?@88<G82>AB8 : 1>;8, 2 A5:AC0;L=>AB8, @02=> :0: 8 ?@8 A><0B8G5A:8E @50:F8OE =0 A8;L=K5 M<>F88,  :>@>G5 3>2>@O, 2 ?>445@60=88 3><5>AB070 >@30=87<0 ?@8 <5=ONI8EAO CA;>28OE 687=8 G5;>25:0 AB0;0 >G5284=>9 @>;L =59@>M=4>:@8==>9 8 8<<C==>9 @53C;8@CNI8E A8AB5<. 4=0:> 459AB285 MB8E 0:B82=KE 3>@<>=>2, ?5?B84>2 8;8 :;5B>G=KE AB@C:BC@ >ACI5AB2;O5BAO =5 A0<> ?> A515, 0 A:>@55 1;03>40@O =0;8G8N ?5@540NI8E AC1AB0=F89 A A83=0;L=K<8 DC=:F8O<8, A2O70==K<8 2 A>?>4G8=Q==K9 :@C3 @53C;OF88 ?>4 8=B53@8@CNI8< C?@02;5=85< =5@2=>9 A8AB5<K, :>B>@0O 4>;6=0 >15A?5G820BL 040?B0F8N 8 2K6820=85 8=48284CC<0 2 >:@C60NI59 A@545. >MB><C <>6=> A >?B8<87<>< >6840BL, GB> A >B:@KB85< =5A:>;L:8E <5480B>@>2 <564C <>B820F8>==K<8 8 A><0B8G5A:8<8 ?@>F5AA0<8 <>6=> 1C45B =09B8 =54>AB0NI55 725=>, :>B>@>5 >1JOA=8B 70304>G=K9 A:0G>: >B ?A8E8G5A:>9 : A><0B8G5A:>9 8==5@20F88, > G5< $@594 2KA:070;AO :>340-B> 25AL<0 A:5?B8G5A:8: K 2 MB>< (A:0G:5) =5 <>65< ?@8=8<0BL CG0AB85. A8E>=59@>M=4>:@8=>;>38O 8 ?A8E>=59@>8<<C=>;>38O ?@54AB02;ONB A>1>9 A0<>AB>OB5;L=K5 @0745;K <548F8=K. ">, GB> 2 MB>9 3;025 >=8 >?8AK20NBAO A>2<5AB=>, 8<55B >A=>20=8O. ! >4=>9 AB>@>=K, 87=0G0;L=K5 3@0=8FK <564C >158<8 >1;0ABO<8 2AQ G0I5 AB0=>2OBAO ?@>=8F05<K<8 8 A>2<5AB=>5 DC=:F8>=8@>20=85 >158E @53C;OB>@=KE A8AB5< A1;8605B =0?@02;5=8O 8AA;54>20=89. (=>385 3>@<>=K, =0?@8<5@ ?>;>2K5 8 3>@<>=K I8B>284=>9 65;57K, -M=4>@D8=, A5@>B>=8= 8 =5 2 ?>A;54=NN >G5@54L 3;:6>:>@B8:>84K, >:07K20NB 2;8O=85 =0 8<<C==CN A8AB5<C, 0 =0 ?>25@E=>AB8 :;5B>:, 2 A2>N >G5@54L, 8<55BAO @O4 GC2AB28B5;L=KE : 3>@<>=0< @5F5?B>@>2.) 'B> :0A05BAO 4@C38E AB>@>= ?@>1;5<K, B> <K =5 1C45< 8E 745AL ?>4@>1=> >1AC640BL. =B5@5ACNI53>AO 8<8 G8B0B5;O <K <>65< >B>A;0BL : A?5F80;L=>9 ;8B5@0BC@5. >AB>9=K5 2=8<0=8O M:A:C@AK 2 ?@>1;5<K ?A8E>M=4>:@8=>;>388 8<5NBAO C . Voigt 8 . Fehm (1990), 2 ?A8E>=59@>8<<C=>;>388  C . Schulz (1986) 8 J. Roitt 8 A>02B. (1991). K=5H=55 A>AB>O=85 ?@>1;5<K 2 ?A8E>=59@>M=4>:@8-=>;>388 >B@060NB A1>@=8:8 D. Hellhammer 8 A>02B. (1988) 8 . Weiner 8 A>02B. (1989), 0 2 ?A8E>=59@>8<<C=>;>388  R. Ader 8 A>02B. (1990). !>2@5<5==>5 ?>=8<0=85 A>F80;L=KE 8 ?A8E>18>;>38G5A:8E D0:B>@>2 ?@8 8<<C==KE 701>;520=8OE, ?@8 =5@2=>9 0=>@5:A88, 0 B0:65 2A5>1J5<;NI55 ?@54AB02;5=85 > ?@>1;5<0E AB@5AA0 40=> . Weiner (1980, 1989, 1991). >4@>1=K9 0=0;87 8<<C==KE @50:F89 ?@8 AB@5AA5 40NB J. Kiecolt-Glaser 8 R. Glaser (1991), ?@8 45?@5AA82=KE @50:F8OE . Stein 8 A>02B. (1991). 7 2A5E 8AA;54>20=89 284=>, GB> 4> =0AB>OI53> 2@5<5=8 2 >1;0AB8 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8E 8AA;54>20=89 5IQ <0;> 70:>=G5==>3> 8 <=>3> =5OA=>3>. "0:, D. Felten (1991), =0?@8<5@, >1@0B8; 2=8<0=85 =0 B>, GB> 4> A8E ?>@ ?A8E>=59@>8<<C=>;>38G5A:85 8AA;54>20=8O 1K;8 A>A@54>B>G5=K =0 =530B82=KE 687=5==KE A8BC0F8OE (=0?@8<5@, ?>B5@O :;NG52KE ?>78F89 ;8G=>AB8 8;8 AB@5AA), 2 B> 2@5<O :0: ?>78B82=K5 687=5==K5 A>AB>O=8O (=0?@8<5@, C4>2;5B2>@5=85, @04>ABL 8;8 A<5E) =5 AB0=>28;8AL ?@54<5B>< =0CG=KE 8AA;54>20=89. -B> =02>48B =0 <KA;L > B><, GB> 8<<C==0O A8AB5<0 :0: >@30=, 70I8I0NI89 >B ?>2@5640NI8E 2;8O=89, >G5284=>, E@0=8B A;54K 2>A?><8=0=89 8 > ?>78B82=KE, A?>A>1AB2CNI8E C:@5?;5=8N 74>@>2LO >1AB>OB5;LAB20E. -B> A>>B25BAB2>20;> 1K 2K428=CB><C A. Antonovsky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oigt 8 . Fehm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annon, 1920], ?@8GQ< :>@B87>; ?@8>1@5B05B 206=CN, => 4> A8E ?>@ =5OA=CN @>;L. > A>2@5<5==K< 40==K<, AG8B05BAO, GB> >1@07CNI89AO 2 38?>B0;0<CA5 D0:B>@, 2KA2>1>640NI89 :>@B8:>B@>?8= (:>@B8:>B@>?8=-@8;878=3-D0:B>@), C?@02;O5B M=4>:@8==K<8 8 2535B0B82=K<8 @50:F8O<8 =0 AB@5AA. . Voigt 8 . Fehm (1990) A?@0254;82> ?@54C?@5640NB > =5A>AB>OB5;L=>AB8 >6840=8O ?@>ABKE :>@@5;OF89 <564C M=4>:@8==K<8 8 ?A8E8G5A:8<8 =0@CH5=8O<8. -B><C ?@>B82>@5G8B, 2>-?5@2KE, B>, GB> ?5@56820=85 8;8 ?>2545=85 <>4C;8@C5BAO A ?><>ILN @O40 A;>6=> "01;8F0 4 59@>?5?B84K, 3>@<>=K, =59@>B@0=A<8BB5@K [. Voigt 8 . Fehm, 1990] . 5?B84K, :>B>@K5 >1=0@C6820NBAO 2 =5@2=>9 B:0=8 8, 25@>OB=>, 2 =59 65 ?@>4CF8@CNBAO. >@<>=K, ?@>4CF8@C5<K5 M=4>:@8==K<8 :;5B:0<81. >@<>=K 38?>D870 -?5?-B84K (", 3>@<>=, AB8<C;8@CNI89 <5;0=>F8BK, @-M=4>@D8=) >@<>= @>AB0 @>;0:B8=1. 8?>D87 >@<>= @>AB0 -?5?B84 @>;0:B8= "8@5>84AB8<C;8@CNI89 3>@<>= NB58=878@CNI89 3>@<>= $>;;8:C;>AB8<C;8@CNI89 3>@<>=2. 8?>B0;0<8G5A:85 ?5?B84K 07>?@5AA8= :A8B>F8= "8@5>B@>?8=-@8;878=3-3>@<>= >=04>B@>?8=-@8;878=3-3>@<>= >@B8:>B@>?8=-@8;878=3-3>@<>= >@<>= @>AB0  @8;878=3-3>@<>= !><0B>AB0B8= @>M=:5D0;8= -?5?B84 2. -=4>:@8==K5 65;57K >@<>=K I8B>284=>9 65;57K ("3, "4) ;N:>:>@B8:>84K 8=5@0;>:>@B8:>4K -AB@>35=K, 35AB035=K =4@>35=K 3. 8H5G=K5 ?5?B84K 59@>B5=78= @>M=:5D0;8= -?5?B84 07>0:B82=K9 8=B5AB8=0;L=K9 ?5?B84 %>;5F8AB>:8=8=->:B0?5?B84 !C1AB0=F8O  ><1578= =AC;8= ;N:03>= 0=:@50B8G5A:89 ?>;8?5?B84 59@>?5?B84 Y !5:@5B8= . 59@>B@0=A<8BB5@K, ?@>4CF8@C5<K5 F5=B@0;L=K<8 8 ?5@8D5@8G5A:8<8 =59@>=0<8 F5B8;E>;8= 4@5=0;8= >@04@5=0;8= -<8=><0A;O=0O :8A;>B0 () !5@>B>=8= >D0<8= ;8F8= 4. @>G85 B@80;L=K9 =0B@89C@5B8G5A:89 ?5?B84 @048:8=8= =38>B5=78= II 0@=>78=, 3><>:0@=>78= !=>B2>@=K9 ?5?B84 0;LF8B>=8=-35=-?5?B84   2708<>459AB2CNI8E A83=0;L=KE 25I5AB2, 0 2>-2B>@KE, B>, GB> A83=0;L=K5 25I5AB20 @07=>9 ;>:0;870F88 (=0?@8<5@, 2 F5=B@0;L=>9 =5@2=>9 A8AB5<5 8;8 =0 ?5@8D5@88) @50;87CNB A>25@H5==> @07=K5 7040G8 8 DC=:F88. !% #/ >=OB85 ?A8E>=59@>8<<C=>;>38O ?@54;>65=> ?8>=5@>< MB>9 =0CG=>9 >B@0A;8 . 45@>< (R. Ader), :>B>@K9 2 @O45 M:A?5@8<5=B>2 =0 :@KA0E 2?5@2K5 >1=0@C68; :>=48F8>=8@>20==>ABL (>1CA;>2;5==>ABL) 8<<C==>9 A8AB5<K 8 2>7<>6=>ABL 2;8O=8O =0 =5Q >?>A@54>20==KE G5@57 F5=B@0;L=CN =5@2=CN A8AB5<C ?@>F5AA>2 >1CG5=8O 8 ?@8>1@5B5=8O >?KB0 [R. Ader 8 N. Cohen, 1975, 1982; R. Ader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erekjarto, 1970] <<C==0O 70I8B0 C<>@0;L=0O 70I8B0 ;5B>G=0O 70I8B0 5A?5F8D8G5A:0O ><?;5<5=B0@=0O A8AB5<0 @>?5@48= 87>F8< =B5@D5@>= 8<D>:8=K >=>:8=K@0=C;>F8BK 0:@>D038 NK-:;5B:8!?5F8D8G5A:0O<<C=>3;>1C;8=K: IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, IgE"-;8<D>F8BK "-E5;?5@K "-AC?@5AA>@K "-:8;;5@K 8A. 2. !>2<5AB=>5 459AB285 ?A8E8:8, F5=B@0;L=>9 =5@2=>9, M=4>:@8==>9 8 8<<C==>9 A8AB5< [. Kerekjarto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erekjarto, 1970]. 4=0:> 8<<C==0O A8AB5<0 =5 AB0B8G5A:8 AB018;L=0, 0 48=0<8G=0 8 2KA>:>@50:B82=0 2 A2>8E 70I8B=KE DC=:F8OE ?@>B82 =03@C7>: =0 3><5>AB07. <5==> MB> A2>5>1@0785 ?@82>48B : :>;>AA0;L=K< <5B>48G5A:8< ?@>1;5<0< 8 A>740QB B0:85 B@C4=>AB8 2 8AA;54>20=8OE. 0:>9 F5;;N;O@=K9 AC1AB@0B 8<55B =04;560I89 8 8718@0B5;L=K9 ?0@0<5B@ 4;O 8AA;54>20=8O ?A8E8G5A:8E 8;8 A>F80;L=KE ?5@53@C7>:?  ?@56=8E ?A8E>8<<C=>;>38G5A:8E 8AA;54>20=8OE ?> ?@58<CI5AB2C ?@54?@8=8<0;8AL ?>?KB:8 >?@545;OBL G5@57 AB8<C;OF8N "- (8;8 -) ;8<D>F8B>2 8E DC=:F8>=0;L=CN A?>A>1=>ABL in vitro.  ?>A;54=55 2@5<O ?>O28;0AL 2>7<>6=>ABL :>;8G5AB25==> >?@545;OBL AC1?>?C;OF88 "-;8<D>F8B>2 8 8E A>>B=>H5=85 <564C A>1>9: B0: =07K205<K5 "4-2A?><>30B5;L=K5 :;5B:8 ("4-E5;?5@K), ?>2KH0NI85 8<<C==K9 >B25B G5@57 @07;8G=K5 AC1AB0=F88 (;8<D>:8=K), "8-AC?@5AA>@K, ?>402;ONI85 8<<C==K5 @50:F88; 0 B0:65 F8B>B>:A8G5A:85 "-;8<D>F8BK, =5?>A@54AB25==> C=8GB>60NI85 8=D8F8@>20==K5 :;5B:8. ;O 8AA;54>20=8O ?@54AB02;ONB 7=0G8B5;L=K9 8=B5@5A 5AB5AB25==K5 :;5B:8-:8;;5@K, :>;8G5AB25==>5 >?@545;5=85 :>B>@KE 2 1>;LH59 <5@5 >B@0605B 87<5=5=8O 8<<C==>3> AB0BCA0, G5<, =0?@8<5@ >?@545;5=85 A>45@60=8O "4-;8<D>F8B>2. A5 MB8 :;5B>G=K5 AC1AB0=F88 8<<C==>9 A8AB5<K ?>A;54=55 2@5<O 8=B5=A82=> 87CG0NBAO 2 M:A?5@8<5=B0;L=KE 8 :;8=8G5A:8E CA;>28OE, =0?@8<5@ ?@8 C3@>60NI59 8;8 C65 =0ABC?82H59 CB@0B5 1;87:>3> G5;>25:0, ?@8 8=4CF8@>20==>< 8;8 ?5@568B>< AB@5AA5, ?@8 45?@5AA88, A>F80;L=>9 87>;OF88 8 M:A?5@8<5=B0;L=> 2K720==>9 15A?><>I=>AB8, 0 B0:65 ?@8 ?>8A:0E ?@>3=>AB8G5A:8E :@8B5@852 B5G5=8O C '-8=D8F8@>20==KE 8;8 C65 1>;L=KE !>< [. Kemeny 8 A>02B., 1989; . Weiner, 1989; Rabkin 8 A>02B., 19911. 5@54:> 8AA;54>20B5;8 2K=C645=K :>=AB0B8@>20BL, GB> >=8 B>;L:> =0 ?CB8 ?>8A:>2 7=0G5=8O MB8E 40==KE, :0: 3>2>@OB . Stein 8 A>02B. (1991) 2 >17>@5, ?>A2OI5==>< 0:BC0;L=K< 8<<C=>;>38G5A:8< 8AA;54>20=8O< 45?@5AA89.  2A5 65, =5A<>B@O =0 @O4 <5B>4>;>38G5A:8E B@C4=>AB59, 8<5NBAO 4>AB0B>G=> 25A><K5 4>AB865=8O, :>B>@K5 <>6=> >E0@0:B5@87>20BL ;8HL :@0B:>. @5E>4OI55 >A;01;5=85 8<<C==>9 A8AB5<K 2 A<KA;5 8<<C=>AC?@5AA82=KE 87<5=5=89 =01;N405BAO 2 A0<KE @07=KE 687=5==KE A8BC0F8OE 8 ?@8 @07;8G=KE 701>;520=8OE [J. Kiecolt-Glaser 8 R. Glaser, 1991]: ?@8 >AB@>< ?@5E>4OI5< AB@5AA5 (=0?@8<5@, =0 M:70<5=0E), ?@8 4;8B5;L=KE =5@2=KE =03@C7:0E (=0?@8<5@, ?@8 @07;C:5, ?>B5@5 1;87:>3> G5;>25:0, 157@01>B8F5 8;8 A>F80;L=>9 87>;OF88), 0 B0:65 ?@8 45?@5AA82=KE A>AB>O=8OE =0 D>=5 E@>=8G5A:8E @5F84828@CNI8E 8=D5:F8>==KE 701>;520=89 (35=8B0;L=K9 35@?5A, '-8=D5:F8O/!). >?@>A, =0A:>;L:> MB> ?@8;>68<> 8 : 45?@5AA82=K< 701>;520=8O< 2 C7:>< A<KA;5 MB>3> A;>20, >AB0QBAO A?>@=K< [. Stein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audenslager 8 A>02B., 1983]. -B8 M:A?5@8<5=BK ?>72>;ONB A45;0BL 420 2K2>40: 1) B0:85 ?A8E>;>38G5A:85 D0:B>@K, :0: 15A?><>I=>ABL 8 1572KE>4=>ABL, ?@>872>4OB <0AA82=>5 ?>2@5640NI55 2>7459AB285 =0 8<<C==CN A8AB5<C; 2) CA?5H=>5 ?@5>4>;5=85 B@C4=>AB8 40QB ?@>B82>?>;>6=K9 MDD5:B, 1;03>?@8OBAB2CNI89 74>@>2LN.  MB>9 A2O78 ;53:> 2>7=8:05B <KA;L > ?A8E>B5@0?52B8G5A:>9 8;8 8=>9 AB@5AA@54CF8@CNI59 A?>A>1=>AB8 A?@02;OBLAO A A8BC0F859, CA8;820BL 70I8B=K5 A8;K 8 :>A25==> >:07K20BL 1;03>?@8OB=>5 2;8O=85 =0 C3@>60NICN 8;8 C65 @072820NICNAO 1>;57=L A0<>3> @07=>3> ?@>8AE>645=8O. 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KO2;5=K B0:65 ?>;>2K5 @07;8G8O: 65=I8=K ?@5>1;040;8 ?@8 @07;8G=KE ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8E, >A>15==> DC=:F8>=0;L=KE, A8=4@><0E, 0 B0:65 ?@8 ?A8E>=52@>70E, C <C6G8= 65 G0I5 AB028;8 4803=>7 =0@CH5=89 ;8G=>AB8 8 0;:>3>;87<0. AA;54>20B5;8 :>=AB0B8@>20;8 B0:65, GB> ?@8 ?5@2KE ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8E 8 =52@>B8G5A:8E 4803=>70E 8 A;CG0OE 701>;520=89 A25@E >6840=8O G0AB> 2KO2;O;0AL @0==OO 45BA:0O =52@>B8G5A:0O A8<?B><0B8:0. 0==K5 MB>3> 8AA;54>20=8O 1K;8 ?>4B25@645=K :0B0<=5AB8G5A:8<8 =01;N45=8O<8 G5@57 3 3>40 [. Schepank, 1990], ?@8 :>B>@KE 2K1>@>G=K5 ?@>1K 1K;8 ?@>2545=K ?CBQ< >?@>A0 44 ;8F 87 @0=55 >1A;54>20==>9 3@C??K. 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intl-Wiegand 8 . Cooper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tuhr 8 A. Haag, 1989|. >A;5 B>3> :0: 87 >1I53> G8A;0 1>;L=KE (521) 1K;8 >BA5O=K ?0F85=BK 2 2>7@0AB5 AB0@H5 80 ;5B, 0;:>3>;8:8, AC8F840;L=K5 1>;L=K5 8 1>;L=K5, >B:0702H85AO >B 8AA;54>20=8O, 0 B0:65 B5, C :>B>@KE =0ABC?8;> CEC4H5=85 >1I53> A>AB>O=8O, >AB02H85AO 154 1>;L=KE 1K;8 >?@>H5=K ?> AE5<5 ?>;CAB0=40@B87>20==>3> 8=B5@2LN, :>B>@K5 70B5< 1K;8 ?@>0=0;878@>20=K =57028A8<K<8 M:A?5@B0<8. @><5 B>3>, 1K;8 87CG5=K ?> 687=5==K< A>1KB8O< 8 4803=>7K ?@8 =0?@02;5=88 8 ?@8 2K?8A:5 87 1>;L=8FK. # 48,3% 8=B5@2LN8@>20==KE 1>;L=KE 1K; CAB0=>2;5= ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:89 35=57 701>;520=8O, AB02H53> ?@8G8=>9 3>A?8B0;870F88 [U. Stuhr 8 A. Haag, 1989]. -B8 40==K5 >4=>7=0G=> A>2?040NB A 10 4@C38<8 =01;N45=8O<8 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8E 701>;520=89 2 AB0F8>=0@0E, 2 :>B>@KE 4>;O MB8E 1>;L=KE A>AB028;0 41,8%. 0: A8;L=> 7028AOB B0:85 40==K5 =5 B>;L:> >B AB@C:BC@K 8 <5AB>?>;>65=8O :;8=8:8, => 8 >B >?@545;5=8O ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:89 8 B5E=8:8 ?>AB0=>2:8 4803=>70, ?>:07K205B @071@>A 40==KE 2 MB8E 11 8AA;54>20=8OE >B 5,1 4> 66,8%. >;55 B>G=K5 MB8>;>38G5A:85 >F5=:8 40=K 2 30<1C@3A:8E 8AA;54>20=8OE, 345 =0@O4C A @07@5H0NI59 A8BC0F859 8 A0<>>F5=:>9 1>;L=>3> CG8BK20;8AL @0==85, >B=>AOI85AO : 45BAB2C ?A8E8G5A:85 B@C4=>AB8 8 >682;5=85 MB>9 @0==59 B@02<K 2 :0G5AB25 8=48:0B>@0 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8E A2O759. !CI5AB25==>5 7=0G5=85 8<55B 2K2>4: ?@8 E@>=870F88 701>;520=8O, 4;8B5;L=>ABL :>B>@>3> ?@52KH05B 2 3>40, <>B820F8O 1>;L=>3> 70=8<0BLAO A2>8<8 ?@>1;5<0<8 A=8605BAO, 0 G5@57 10 ;5B 2>>1I5 8AG5705B. @8 40;L=59H5< =01;N45=88 AB0=>28BAO >G5284=K<, GB> 2 2>7@0AB5 AB0@H5 65 ;5B ?0F85=BK 2AQ @565 C:07K20NB =0 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:85 A2O78 8 2AQ <5=LH5 3>B>2K A>3;0A8BLAO A B0:8< >1JOA=5=85<. AQ 1>;55 O2AB25==K< AB0=>28BAO 7=0G5=85 ?A8E>A>F80;L=KE ?@>1;5<, 87>;OF88, 2>?@>A>2 68;LO, ?>B@51=>AB8 2 701>B5, B.5. =54>AB0B>: A>F80;L=>9 ?>445@6:8, GB> 7=0G8B5;L=> 2;8O5B =0 =0AB@>5=85 8 A>AB>O=85 1>;L=KE [A. Haag 8 A>02B., 1989]. 'B> :0A05BAO 1>;57=5==>3> A>AB>O=8O 8 A><0B8G5A:8E 701>;520=89, B> :>@@5;OF88 <564C =0;8G85< BO6Q;KE ?@87=0:>2 1>;57=8 8 B5=45=F859 @0AA<0B@820BL A51O :0: 1>;L=>3> =5 2KO2;5=>. . ;N335 (. Plugge) >?8A0; 79-;5B=53> <C6G8=C, 87>1@5B0B5;O, :>B>@K9 ?@8HQ; 2 ?>;8:;8=8:C, GB>1K ?>;CG8BL A?@02:C > B><. GB> >= =C6405BAO 2 CE>45. 0F85=B ?>4GQ@:820;, GB> C =53> =5B =8:0:8E 60;>1, 0 A?@02:0 5<C =C6=0, GB>1K ?>?0ABL 2 ?@5AB86=K9 4>< 4;O ?@5AB0@5;KE, 2 :>B>@>< :0: @07 ?>O28;>AL A2>1>4=>5 <5AB>. %>;>ABO:, >= 2 A2>Q< 2>7@0AB5 C65 CAB0; >B 15A:>=5G=KE C1>@>:, A0<>>1A;C6820=8O, ?@83>B>0G5=8O ?8I8, HB>?:8 =>A:>2 8 B.?. = 4>;65= M:>=><=> @0AE>4>20BL A2>Q 2@5<O, ?>B><C GB> C =53> 5IQ <=>3> @01>BK, A :>B>@>9 >= A:>@55 A?@028BAO 2 4><5 4;O ?@5AB0@5;KE. 1J5:B82=> C ?0F85=B0 1K;8 2KO2;5=K 2K@065==0O <8>:0@48>48AB@>D8O, @0AH8@5=85 3@0=8F A5@4F0 A <5@F0=85< ?@54A5@489, ;Q3>G=K9 70AB>9 8 >BQ:8. @8 >?@>A5 2KOA=8;>AL, GB> 1>;L=>9 704KE05BAO ?@8 ?>4JQ<5 ?> ;5AB=8F5, =>GLN 2  3 @070 2AB05B <>G8BLAO, C =53> >B5:0NB =>38 (>= >1JOA=O5B MB> =>H5=85< B5A=>9 >1C28). > >= =5 GC2AB2C5B A51O 1>;L=K< 8 =5 ?@54JO2;O5B =8:0:8E 60;>1. 07;8G8O 2 >?@545;5=88 G0AB>BK ?A8E>35==KE A2O759 2> <=>3>< 7028AOB >B :>=F5?F88 =01;N40B5;O >B=>A8B5;L=> ?A8E>35=570, <5B>4>2 =01;N45=8O 8 >F5=:8 53> @57C;LB0B>2, 0 B0:65 >B >F5=:8 :>=F5?F88 1>;57=8 A0<8< ?0F85=B><. A8E>A><0B8G5A:85 8AA;54>20=8O, 8E ?@0:B8:0 8 ?@>D5AA8>=0;L=0O CAB0=>2:0 2 ?>A;54=85 3>4K 8<5NB B5=45=F8N : 7=0G8B5;L=><C ?@5>1;040=8N ?A8E>35=570 8 ?>8A:>2 ?A8E>MB8>;>38G5A:8E A;54>2 [F. Muthny 8 U. Koch, 1989]. AA;54>20B5;8 8AE>4OB 87 B>3>, GB> <=>385 A8BC0F8>==> >1CA;>2;5==K5 8;8 A2O70==K5 A :>=D;8:B0<8 A><0B8G5A:85 1>;57=5==K5 ?@>O2;5=8O =5 4803=>AB8@CNBAO 8 <>3CB 8AG570BL 157 ;5G5=8O. A8E>A><0B8:0 B5?5@L ?@8>1@5B05B =>2K5 7040G8 2 A2O78 A ?@>1;5<>9 ?A8E>;>38G5A:>3> ?@5>4>;5=8O ?@8 BO6Q;KE A><0B8G5A:8E 701>;520=8OE, G8A;> :>B>@KE G@572KG09=> 25;8:>. -B8< ?0F85=B0< 8 ?@5645 2A53> 2@0G0<, :>B>@K5 2 :>=5G=>< AGQB5 8 4>;6=K 70=8<0BLAO MB8<8 1>;L=K<8, =C6=0 ?><>HL, :>B>@CN 8 ?@54;0305B ?A8E>A><0B8:0, 0 8<5==>: >14C<0BL 8 2K@078BL 3>B>2=>ABL : A>B@C4=8G5AB2C B5@0?52B>2 8 ?A8E>A><0B8:>2. " !#,"# / !%!" =>385 3>4K 3>A?>4AB2>20;> <=5=85, GB> ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:85 1>;57=8 ?@8=04;560B : 1>;57=O< F828;87>20==>3> <8@0. !G8B0;>AL, GB> 2KA>:89 70?04=K9 C@>25=L 687=8 G@520B MB8<8 1>;57=O<8 F828;870F88 8 GB> C 45B59 ?@8@>4K 8 2 @072820NI8EAO AB@0=0E B0:8E 1>;57=59 =5B 8;8 >=8 @54:8. %>BO 2A5>1J5<;NI8E B@0=A:C;LBC@=KE 8AA;54>20=89 ?>:0 =5B, <K 2AQ 65 @0A?>;0305< C:070=8O<8 =0 B>, GB> ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:85 701>;520=8O 2 C7:>< A<KA;5 A;>20, :0: 8 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:85 20@80=BK 2=CB@8 @07=KE =>7>;>38G5A:8E 3@C??, 0 B0:65 B5=45=F8N : A><0B870F88 ?A8E>A>F80;L=>3> :>=D;8:B0 <>6=> >1=0@C68BL 8 C =5F828;87>20==KE =0@>4>2. > 2AO:>< A;CG05 CAB0=>2;5=>, GB> MAA5=F80;L=0O 38?5@B5=78O >B=>A8B5;L=> G0AB> 2AB@5G05BAO C 682CI8E 2 @575@20F8OE N6=>0D@8:0=F52. # =0@>4>2 #30=4K ?@8 0CB>?A88 G0AB> >1=0@C6820NBAO O725==K5 @C1FK, ?@8GQ< 8<5NBAO @07;8G8O <564C @07=K<8 ?;5<5=0<8. 0 >A=>25 40==KE  <>6=> A:070BL, GB> O725==0O 1>;57=L =K=5 =01;N405BAO 2> 2AQ< <8@5. 535B0B82=K5 =52@>;>38G5A:85 =0@CH5=8O A@548 =0@>40 9>@C10 2 835@88 >1=0@C6820NBAO B0: 65 G0AB>, :0: 8 C 68B5;59 LN->@:0 8;8 =0A5;5=8O 0=04K [D. Leighton 8 A>02B., 1963]; MB> ?@5645 2A53> 3>;>2=0O 1>;L, 2=CB@5==55 15A?>:>9AB2>, =5@2>7=>ABL, 3>;>2>:@C65=8O, @0AAB@>9AB20 A=0, 1>;L 2 A5@4F5. ?@>G5<, 8<5NBAO B0:65 C:070=8O =0 @07=CN G0AB>BC B5E 8;8 8=KE 60;>1.  =488 =0 >1I55 GC2AB2> A;01>AB8 60;CNBAO 60% <C6G8= 8 80% 65=I8=; :@><5 B>3>, <C6G8=K 745AL >G5=L G0AB> 60;CNBAO =0 A=865=85 ?>B5=F88. . Pflanz (1967) 2 A2>8E =01;N45=8OE >B<5G0; 70?>@K C <C6G8= 2 0=5 8 =488 G0I5, G5< 2 8A5=5. =>3>5 C:07K205B =0 B>, GB> CB25@645=8O > 15A:>=D;8:B=>9 687=8 =5F828;87>20==KE =0@>4>2, A2>1>4=KE >B ?A8E8G5A:8E =0@CH5=89 8 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8E 701>;520=89, A2O70==KE A 70?04=K< >1@07>< <KH;5=8O 8 70?04=K< AB8;5< 687=8, 8<5NB 2 A2>59 >A=>25 ?@8BO70=8O =0 2;0ABL 8 ?@>@>G5AB20 F5@:>2=KE ?@>?>254=8:>2. 8DD5@5=F8@>20==>5 A>?>AB02;5=85 A>1AB25==>9 F828;870F88 8 8=>AB@0==KE :C;LBC@ C:07K205B =0 B>, GB> G0AB>B0 ?A8E8G5A:8E 8 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8E A8<?B><>>1-@07>20=89 @07;8G05BAO 2 @07=KE A>F80;L=KE 3@C??0E, GB> <>65B ACI5AB25==> ?><>GL 2 ?>=8<0=88 A>F80;L=>9 >A=>2K MB8E =0@CH5=89. <5AB5 A B5< ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:85 A2O78 >1=0@C6820NBAO 2 B0:8E AB@0=0E, :0: >20O 28=5O. 0@B>= @54;8 (. Bradley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flanz, 1961]. 4=0:> >1 8E G0AB>B5 ?>:0 5IQ B@C4=> A>AB028BL ?@54AB02;5=85 87-70 >G5=L @07;8G0NI8EAO CA;>289 >1A;54>20=8O 8 >BACBAB28O GQB:8E 4803=>AB8G5A:8E :@8B5@852. !%!"  !&,+ !!+ @8 A>1;N45=88 48DD5@5=F8@>20==>AB8 =01;N45=89 ?A8E8G5A:8E 8 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8E =0@CH5=89 ?>43>B>2;5==K<8 A?5F80;8AB0<8 1K;8 >1A;54>20=K @5?@575=B0B82=K5 3@C??K =0A5;5=8O 2 LN->@:5 (8AA;54>20=85 2 84B0C=-0=E5BB5=5) [Michael, 1960] 8 2 0=045 (8AA;54>20=85 2 3@0DAB25 !B8@;8=3) [D. Leighton 8 A>02B., 1963]. -B> 1K;0 @5?@575=B0B82=0O 2K1>@:0 87 >1I59 <0AAK =0A5;5=8O, B.5. =5 >1KG=>5 2@0G51=>5 >1A;54>20=85, B0: :0: ?@8 =0;8G88 :0:8E-;81> =0@CH5=89 @538AB@8@>20;0AL B0:65 ?@8=04;56=>ABL : B><C 8;8 8=><C A;>N =0A5;5=8O. 1=0@C65=> ACI5AB25==>5 ?@5>1;040=85 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8E A8<?B><>2 2 =87H8E A;>OE =0A5;5=8O ?> A@02=5=8N A> A@54=8< 8 2KAH8< A;>O<8 (2 0=045 B>;L:> C 65=I8=). B<5G5=0 A2O7L G0AB>BK A><0B8G5A:8E 60;>1 8 A8<?B><>2 A A>F80;L=K<8 :@870<8 2=CB@8 40==>9 >1I8=K. ?@>G5<, >AB0QBAO >B:@KBK< 2>?@>A, =5 >B<5G0NB ;8 G0I5 ?@54AB028B5;8 =87H8E A;>52 =0A5;5=8O ?;>E>5 A0<>GC2AB285 2 2845 A><0B8G5A:8E >ICI5=89. 081>;55 G0AB> ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:85 60;>1K 2 :0=04A:8E >?@>A0E 1K;8 A2O70=K A 65;C4>G=>-:8H5G=K< B@0:B><, 70B5< A;54>20;8 60;>1K =0 =0@CH5=8O 45OB5;L=>AB8 4KE0B5;L=>9 8 A5@45G=>-A>AC48AB>9 A8AB5<, 3>;>2=CN 1>;L. 57C;LB0BK MB8E M?845<8>;>38G5A:8E 8AA;54>20=89 ?>4B25@640NB 1>;55 @0==85 =01;N45=8O 0<5@8:0=A:8E ?A8E80B@>2 8 A>F8>;>3>2 [L. Freedman 8 A. Hollingshead, 1956/57], :>B>@K5 B0:65 >B<5B8;8 1>;55 G0ABK5 A><0B8G5A:85 60;>1K A@548 1>;L=KE, ?@8=04;560I8E : =87H8< A;>O< =0A5;5=8O 8 =0E>4OI8EAO =0 ?A8E>B5@0?52B8G5A:>< ;5G5=88.  B> 2@5<O :0: C@>25=L :>=D;8:B>2 2 2KAH8E :;0AA0E :0A0;AO 2 >A=>2=>< 4CH52=KE ?5@56820=89, C =87H8E A;>52 MB> 1K;8 G0H5 :>=D;8:BK 8 B@C4=>AB8, A2O70==K5 A >B=>H5=8O<8 =0 @01>B5, 2 A5<L5 8 A A>A54O<8.  =01;N45=8OE =5<5F:8E 02B>@>2 [D. Beckmann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Sheldon) A ?><>ILN ?A8E>;>38G5A:8E B5AB>2 2KO28; C F5@51@>B>=8:>2, M=4>- 8 <57><>@D=KE ;8F B5;5A=>-4CH52=K5 A2O78 A >?@545;Q==K<8 >A>15==>ABO<8 ;8G=>AB8. 0?@8<5@, ?@8 8=D0@:B0E <8>:0@40 >1=0@C65=> =5 B>;L:> ?@5>1;040=85 ;8F <57><>@D=>3> B8?0, => 8 ?A8E8G5A:85 >A>15==>AB8 2 2845 M:AB@025@A88, A2>9AB25==K5 A><0B>B>=88. ;0AA8G5A:85 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:85 @01>BK MB>3> E0@0:B5@>;>38G5A:>3> =0?@02;5=8O ?@8=04;560B 0<5@8:0=A:><C 2@0GC $;5=45@A 0=15@ (F. Dunbar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osenman 8 . Friedman (1964, 1966) 2 @07@01>B:5 4;O ;8F A C3@>7>9 @0728B8O 8=D0@:B0 <8>:0@40 (B0: =07K205<>3> ?>2545=8O B8?0 )  :>=F5?F8O, :>B>@0O 8 A53>4=O ?@82;5:05B 1>;LH>5 2=8<0=85. "0:85 >?8A0=8O 2AB@5G0NBAO 2> <=>38E 8AA;54>20=8OE ;8G=>AB8 [W. Sheldon 8 S. Stevens, 1942; F. Dunbar, 1943]. >6=> 7040BL 2>?@>A, =5 O2;O5BAO ;8 2 A2>59 >A=>25 AB>;L >682;Q==> >1AC6405<0O A 70-E 3>4>2 <>45;L 0;5:A8B8<88 A>2@5<5==>9 25@A859 B8?>;>388 ;8G=>AB8. > <K ?@54?>G8B05< MB> ?>;>65=85 ?@54AB028BL 2 @0<:0E <>45;8 :>=D;8:B0.  GQ< A>AB>8B ?>;L70 E0@0:B5@>;>38G5A:8 >@85=B8@>20==KE =0?@02;5=89 8 ;8G=>AB=>9 B8?>;>388? 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'B>1K A>E@0=8BL 8 @0728BL <>45;L :>=25@A88 :0: >1@075F 4;O >1JOA=5=8O, 5Q A;54>20;> A2O7K20BL A 35=8B0;L-=>-A5:AC0;L=K< :>=D;8:B><. @54;>65==>5 $5=8E5;5< (Fenichel) ?>=OB85 ?@535=8B0;L=0O :>=25@A8O @0A?@>AB@0=8;> >1;0ABL 0:BC0;L=>3> :>=D;8:B0 B0:65 =0 =0@CH5=8O 1>;55 @0==8E, 8=D0;LB8;L=KE ?>B@51=>AB59, :>B>@K5 A2O70=K A 65;0=85< 1;87>AB8, B5?;0, 701>BK 8 B.4. >340 ?>765 L. Rangell (1959) 8 4@C385 8AA;54>20B5;8 ?@54?@8=O;8 ?>?KB:C A=>20 >B3@0=8G8BL ?>=OB85 :>=25@A88, >=8 >1=0@C68;8 ?>GB8 15A:>=5G=>5 @0AH8@5=85 MB>9 <>45;8 =0 2A5 ?@0:B8G5A:8 2>7<>6=K5 :>=D;8:BK, 2 A2O78 A :>B>@K<8 2>7=8:0NB A><0B8G5A:85 =0@CH5=8O, B0: GB> 2A:>@5 2AB0; 2>?@>A, =5 A;54C5B ;8 >3@0=8G8BL MB> ?>=OB85, A>E@0=82 ;8HL ACBL :>=F5?F88 $@5940 > A8<2>;8G5A:>< ?@54AB02;5=88 :>=D;8:B0 8 876820=88 53> 8<?C;LA82=>-48=0<8G5A:8E ?@>O2;5=89 2 2845 A8<?B><>2 :>=25@A88.  B> 2@5<O :0: $@594 8 1>;LH8=AB2> ?A8E>0=0;8B8:>2 >3@0=8G820;8AL 8AB5@859 2 ?@8<5=5=88 :>=25@A8>==>9 <>45;8, . @>445: [G. Groddeck, 1917, 1923] =5 >AB0=>28;AO ?5@54 @0A?@>AB@0=5=85< 5Q =0 1>;57=8 >@30=>2 8 2>>1I5 =0 2A5 701>;520=8O. !><0B8G5A:85 A8<?B><K, ?> @>445:C, 2K@060NB =5GB> A8<2>;8G5A:>5, >=8 2KB5:0NB 87 A8;K =>, :>B>@0O <>65B ?@>O28BLAO 2 ;N1>< >@30=5. -B> =>, 2 B>;:>20=88 @>445:0 15AA>7=0B5;L=>5, :>B>@>5 A>45@68B ?@54AB028B5;LAB2> 2;5G5=89 8 >E20BK205B 5AB5AB25==K5 A8;K, O2;O5BAO B0:65 8AB>G=8:>< ?@O<>3> 2>7459AB28O =0 >@30=. "0:8< ?CBQ< ?>=OB85 :>=25@A88 @0A?@>AB@0=O5BAO 8 =0 2=CB@5==85 >@30=K, :>B>@K5 C?@02;ONBAO 2535B0B82=>9 =5@2=>9 A8AB5<>9. "5< A0<K< @>445: 2?5@2K5 2KA:070; <KA;L > 7=0G5=88 8 2;8O=88 =5>A>7=0==KE ?@>F5AA>2 =0 2>7=8:=>25=85 A><0B8G5A:8E 701>;520=89. >A;54>202H55 70 MB8< @0A?@>AB@0=5=85 ?A8E>B5@0?88 =0 ;5G5=85 2A5E A><0B8G5A:8E 701>;520=89 ?@8=5A;> >G5284=CN ?>;L7C, => 70 =5Q ?@8E>48BAO ?;0B8BL ?>GB8 15A?@545;L=K< @0AH8@5=85< B5>@5B8G5A:8E ?>=OB89, :>B>@K5 @>445: >?@545;O5B 1;5ABOH5, => =5GQB:>. >MB><C OA=>, GB> 2K@065==0O A?5:C;OB82=>ABL 53> ?>=8<0=8O ?0B>35=570 <>65B >:070BL >?0A=>5 2;8O=85 ?@8 =5:@8B8G=>< 8 =5=0CG=>< 2=54@5=88 53> 2 ;5G51=CN ?@0:B8:C. >MB><C 53> AE5<0 8<55B B5?5@L ;8HL 8AB>@8G5A:>5 7=0G5=85 =5 B>;L:> 2 A8;C 5Q B5>@5B8G5A:8E =54>AB0B:>2, => 8 2 A2O78 A A8;L=>9 M:A?0=A859 5Q 2 >1;0ABL ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:>9 B@0:B>2:8 2A5E 701>;520=89. >;LH8=AB2> 8AA;54>20B5;59 A>3;0A=K A B5<, GB> ?>=OB85 :>=25@A88 :0: ?@8=F8? @07JOA=5=8O ?@8<5=8<> ;8HL : >?@545;Q==>9 3@C??5 A8<2>;8G5A:8 45B5@<8=8@>20==KE A8<?B>:><?;5:A>2, => 4;O 1>;LH8=AB20 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8E @0AAB@>9AB2 >= =5?@8<5=8<. !><0B8G5A:0O A8<?B><0B8:0 745AL @54CF8@>20=0 4> ?A8E>35=5B8G5A:>3> C@>2=O A>7=0B5;L=>3> 8;8 15AA>7=0B5;L=>3> O7K:0 >@30=>2, GB> =5 A>>B25BAB2C5B <C;LB8:>=48-G8>=0;L=><C 2;8O=8N ?@8 <=>38E 701>;520=8OE. CH52=K5 8 A>F80;L=K5 D0:B>@K 2>7459AB28O 1>;55 <=>3>>1@07=K 8 =5 >3@0=8G820NBAO =0?@O6Q==K<8 :>=D;8:B0<8. 52@>7K >?@545;ONB ;8HL >4=C 87 2>7<>6=KE MB8>;>38G5A:8-48=0<8G5A:8E <>45;59 ?@8 A><0B8G5A:8E 701>;520=8OE. "5>@8O 5- 8 5A><0B870F88 . (C@0 KA;L > 25@B8:0;L=>< @0AG;5=5=88 8 DC=:F8>=0;L=>< A>740=88 8 @07- #H5=88 A><0B8G5A:>9, 4CH52=>9 8 4CE>2=>9 45OB5;L=>AB8 ?@8ACBAB2C5B 2> <=>38E =0BC@D8;>A>DA:8E, D878>;>38G5A:8E 8 ?A8E>;>38G5A:89 <>45;OE. =0 8<55B 1>;LH>5 7=0G5=85, =0?@8<5@, 2 DC=:F8>=0;L=>9 <>45;8 =5@2=>9 A8AB5<K 6>=0 6M:A>=0 (J. Jackson) A 53> 85@0@E859 D878G5A:>9 8 ?A8E8G5A:>9 45OB5;L=>AB8, GB> ?>2;8O;> 8 =0 $@5940. A8E>0=0;87 >?8AK205B 2 D878G5A:>9 8 ?A8E8G5A:>9 45OB5;L=>AB8 B>?8G5A:CN 8 35=5B8G5A:CN ?@>3@5AA8N 8 @53@5AA8N. "0:8< >1@07><, 8<5NB <5AB> A>740=85 8 @0A?04, :>B>@K5 >ACI5AB2;ONBAO <564C 15AA>7=0B5;L=K<8 B5;5A=K<8, =081>;55 M;5<5=B0@=K<8 C@>2=O<8 8 A>7=0B5;L=K<8 48DD5@5=F8@>20==K<8 2>A?@8B8O<8 8 ?@54AB02;5=8O<8. @><5 B>3>, ?A8E>0=0;87 >?8AK205B ?@>3@5AA8N 8 @53@5AA8N 2> 2@5<5=8, D07>2>-A?5F8D8G5A:>5 @0728B85 8 2>72@0I5=85 : 1>;55 @0==8< D>@<0<, =0?@8<5@ : @0==8< 45BA:8< ?5@56820=8O<. AE>4O 87 MB>3>, . (C@ [. Schur, 1955] >?8A0; ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:>5 A8<?B><>>1@07>20=85 :0: B>?8G5A:CN 8 2@5<5==MN @53@5AA8N, ?@8G5< A><0B8G5A:85 701>;520=8O >?8AK20NBAO 2 @0<:0E <>45;8 @0728B8O D878G5A:>9 8 ?A8E8G5A:>9 45OB5;L=>AB8. !0<K5 @0==85 45BA:85 @50:F88 C4>2>;LAB28O 8 =5C4>2>;LAB28O ?>=8<0NBAO :0: 48DDC7=K5 70I8B=K5 D5=><5=K, :>B>@K5 ?@>O2;ONBAO 2 =5:>>@48=8@>20==>9 <KH5G=>9 45OB5;L=>AB8. 51Q=>: >B25G05B =0 A8BC0F8N AB@0E0 42830B5;L=>9 1C@59, MB0 B5=45=F8O <>65B ?@>O2;OBLAO 8 ?>765.  ?@>F5AA5 @0728B8O 8 A>7@520=8O 1>;L 8 AB@0E 2 ?5@56820=8OE >A>7=0NBAO 8 ?5@5@010BK20NBAO 2 >ICI5=8OE, ?@54AB02;5=8OE, <KA;OE 8 2 :>=5G=>< AGQB5 2 @5G8. <5AB> 48DDC7=>3> @5038@>20=8O 2>7=8:05B F5;5=0?@02;5==0O, A>>B25BAB2CNI0O @50;L=>AB8 ?5@5@01>B:0. . Schur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ngel 8 A. Schmale) <5@8:0=A:85 02B>@K G. Engel 8 A. Schmale 2 A2>8E @01>B0E A2O7K20NB @07;8G=K5 8<52H85 <5AB> :>=F5?F88 A A>1AB25==K<8 40==K<8, 45;0O 8=B5@5A=K5 ?@54;>65=8O =0 ?A8E>0=0;8B8G5A:>9 >A=>25. < ?@8=04;568B CB>G=5=85 @>;8 ?A8E8G5A:8E D0:B>@>2 2 35=575 A><0B8G5A:8E A8<?B><>>1@07>20=89 (>A>15==> 2 >1JOA=5=88 7=0G5=8O 8 <5AB0 :>=25@A88) 2 @0<:0E 2>7=8:=>25=8O A><0B8G5A:>3> 701>;520=8O 8 2 7=0G5=88 A8BC0F88 4;O 2KO2;5=8O 701>;520=8O [G. Engel 8 A. Schmale, 1975]. 2B>@K AG8B0NB, GB> >3@0=8G5=85 :>=25@A8>==KE <5E0=87<>2 B>;L:> GC2AB25==>-42830B5;L=>9 AD5@>9, =0 GQ< =0AB08205B F. Alexander (1951), 2> <=>3>< CO728<>. > 8E <=5=8N, :>=25@A8O  MB> ?A8E>;>38G5A:0O :>=F5?F8O, 5Q =5;L7O >?@545;8BL 8;8 >B3@0=8G8BL A ?><>ILN =59@>0=0B><8G5A:8E ?>=OB89, 4065 5A;8 2B>@8G=> 70B@03820NBAO DC=:F88 8 AB@C:BC@K =5@2=>9 A8AB5<K :0: 18>;>38G5A:>5 A;54AB285 459AB28O :>=25@A88 =0 >@30=K. ;O ?A8E>;>38G5A:>9 :>=F5?F88 :>=25@A88 G. Engel 8 A. Schmale 206=> GQB:>5 @07;8G85 <564C 0:B>< :>=25@A88 8 2B>@8G=K<8 ?>A;54AB28O<8 (E0@0:B5@ ?>@065=8O). 5@2=0O A8AB5<0 8 @53C;8@C5<0O 5N ?@>872>;L=0O <>B>@8:0 @0AA<0B@820NBAO B>;L:> :0: 18>;>38G5A:>5 A;54AB285, ?@8GQ< =5 =0 >A=>25 ?@>872>;L=>9 8==5@20F88, 0 =0 >A=>25 A?>A>1=>AB8 1@0BL =0 A51O ?A8E8G5A:>5 ?@54AB028B5;LAB2>. >A:>;L:C <5AB> ?>2@5645=8O ?> 70:>=0< :>=25@A88 45B5@<8=8@>20=> A8<2>;8G5A:8, 02B>@K 2K@060NB <=5=85, GB> C ?0F85=B>2 A 701>;520=8O<8 >4=>9 A8AB5<K (=0?@8<5@, O725==K9 :>;8B 8 1>;57=L @>=0) 48=0<8:0 1>;57=8 A:>@55 AE>4=0 ?> A@02=5=8N A B0:>2>9 ?@8 701>;520=8OE @07=KE A8AB5< (=0?@8<5@, 35?0B8B 8 ?=52<>=8O). >MB><C 2 F5;>< ?@535=8B0;L=0O :>=25@A8O 8<8 @0AA<0B@8205BAO :0: 725=>, CG0AB2CNI55 2 F5?8 A>1KB89, E>BO 02B>@K AG8B0NB A:>@55 =52>7<>6=K< ?5@28G=>5 ?A8E>35==>5 ?@>8AE>645=85 B0:8E =0@CH5=89 DC=:F88 >@30=>2. 'B>1K 8<5BL ?@02> CB25@640BL MB>, =C6=> 4>:070BL, GB> 2=0G0;5 ?@>8AE>48B A8<2>;870F8O, 70B5<  :>=25@A8O, 0 70 =59  ?>2@5645=85, 0 =5 =0>1>@>B  2=0G0;5 ?>2@5645=85, 70B5< 2B>@8G=> 2K@010BK205BAO ?A8E8G5A:>5 ?@54AB028B5;LAB2> 8, =0:>=5F, 40QBAO ?>2>4 4;O 2B>@8G=>9 A8<2>;870F88. >MB><C 02B>@K 8A?>;L7CNB ?@54;>65==>5 G. Engel ?>=OB85 A><0B>?A8E8G5A:>5  ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:>5 =0@CH5=85, GB>1K A45;0BL >G5284=>9 48=0<8:C @0728B8O. !><0B>?A8E8G5A:8-?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8<8 G. Engel 8 A. Schmale =07K20NB 701>;520=8O, ?@8 :>B>@KE ?@54@0A?>;030NI85 18>;>38G5A:85 $0:B>@K =5 B>;L:> 8<5NB <5AB> A <><5=B0 @>645=8O 8;8 A 3@C4=>3> 2>7@0AB0, => ?@O<> 8;8 :>A25==> CG0AB2CNB 2 @0728B88 ?A8E8G5A:>3> 0??0@0B0. -B> =5 >7=0G05B =5?@5<5==>3> ?@5>1;040=8O 18>;>38G5A:8E D0:B>@>2; 4;O =8E <>65B ACI5AB2>20BL >1I0O =548D5@@5=F8@>20==0O <0B@8F0. > =0 :0:><-B> MB0?5 "A?>@=0O" A><0B8G5A:0O A8AB5<0 =0G8=05B A?5F8D8G5A:8< >1@07>< 2>7459AB2>20BL =0 ?A8E8G5A:>5 @0728B85. 0AH8@OO <>45;L A?5F8D8G=>AB8 ;5:A0=45@0, 8AA;54>20B5;8 2KA:07K20NB <=5=85 > B><, GB> 2 2>7=8:=>25=88 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8E =0@CH5=89 25@>OB=0 @>;L A2O78 =5A?5F8D8G5A:8E 8 A?5F8D8G5A:8E D0:B>@>2. @8 MB>< 4;O 2>7=8:=>25=8O A><0B8G5A:8E 701>;520=89 >A>15==> 25;8:> 7=0G5=85 CB@0BK (@50;L=>9 8;8 2>>1@0605<>9) >1J5:B0 A ?>A;54CNI8< >ICI5=85< 15A?><>I=>AB8 8 157=04Q6=>AB8 8 :><?;5:A>< 40BL->B:070BLAO (giving up-given up). =8 2K@060NB A>3;0A85 A <=5=85< 4@C38E 02B>@>2, GB> A8BC0F8O ?@8 2>7=8:=>25=88 1>;57=8 >?@545;O5BAO :0: CB@0B0 ?A8E8G5A:8E 70I8B=KE <5E0=87<>2. 5@54 =0G0;>< 701>;520=8O =01;N40NBAO 0DD5:B82=K5 A>AB>O=8O >BG0O=8O, 45?@5AA88, >1I53> C?04:0.  MB>9 A2O78 G. Engel 8 A. Schmale 48DD5@5=F8@CNB >ICI5=85 15A?><>I=>AB8 A GC2AB2>< 157=04Q6=>AB8. "8?8G=K< 4;O :><?;5:A0 40BL  >B:070BLAO O2;O5BAO GC2AB2> =8:>340 1>;LH5 =5 1KBL 2 ?>@O4:5 (B.5. 74>@>2K<). '0AB> 2AB@5G0NBAO ;018;L=>5 8;8 ?5AA8<8AB8G=>5 >B=>H5=85 : >1J5:B0<, 87<5=Q==>5 >B=>H5=85 : 2=5H=5<C <8@C A >ICI5=85<, GB> >?KB ?@>H;>3> =8:>340 =5 ?@83>48BAO 2 1C4CI5< 8 GB> A2O7L ?@>H;>3> A 1C4CI8< AC1J5:B82=> @07>@20=0. O4 2?5G0B;ONI8E 8AA;54>20=89 ?>4B25@6405B B578AK G. Engel 8 A. Schmale > B><, GB> >ICI5=85 15A?><>I=>AB8 8 157=04Q6=>AB8 ?5@54 =0G0;>< 1>;57=8 8<55B 7=0G5=85 4;O @0728B8O @07;8G=KE A><0B8G5A:8E 701>;520=89. ><?;5:A 40BL  >B:070BLAO, ?> 8E <=5=8N, =5 =0E>48BAO 2 ?@O<>9 ?@8G8==>9 A2O78 A ?>O2;5=85< A><0B8G5A:>3> 701>;520=8O. = =5 O2;O5BAO =8 =5>1E>48<K<, =8 4>AB0B>G=K< CA;>285<, => 2KABC?05B ;8HL :0: A?>A>1AB2CNI89 ?>O2;5=8N A><0B8G5A:>3> 701>;520=8O, 8 B> ;8HL B>340, :>340 8<5NBAO ?@54@0A?>;030NI85 D0:B>@K. "5>@8O G. Engel 8 A. Schmale ?KB05BAO A2O70BL =5A?5F8D8G5A:CN 8 A?5F8D8G5A:CN 3>B>2=>ABL 8=48284CC<0 A =5A?5F8D8G5A:8<8 8 A?5F8D8G5A:8<8 :>=D;8:B0<8. -B> ?>?KB:0 >E20B8BL =5 B>;L:> ?A8E>;>38G5A:85 CA;>28O, => 8 2@>64Q==K5 8 >1CA;>2;820NI85 1>;57=L ?@8>1@5BQ==K5 D0:B>@K 8 8E 7=0G5=85 8, B0:8< >1@07><, 48DD5@5=F8@>20==> >F5=8BL @>;L A><0B8G5A:8E, ?A8E8G5A:8E 8 A>F80;L=KE D0:B>@>2 ?@8 2>7=8:=>25=88 1>;57=59.  C?><O=CBKE 2KH5 ?A8E>0=0;8B8G5A:8E <>45;OE 45;0NBAO ?>?KB:8 >A<KA;8BL ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:>5 A8<?B><>>1@07>20=85 A ?><>ILN 2KO2;5==KE ?@8 =52@>70E 2@5<5==KE, B>?8G5A:8E 8 =0@F8AA8G5A:8E D>@< @53@5AA88, :>=F5?F89 45- 8 @5A><0B870F88 ?A8E8G5A:8E ?@>F5AA>2 8 :>=25@A88. @8 MB><, >4=0:>, =5 CG8BK205BAO ?@8=F8?80;L=>5 @07;8G85 A =52@>70<8. AB0QBAO ?@>1;5<0B8G=K< ?@54;>65=85 G. Engel 8 A. Schmale @0AA<0B@820BL 2@5<O 8 <5AB> ?>2@5645=8O, 0 =5 A0< A><0B8G5A:89 A8<?B>< :0: >1CA;>2;5==K9 A8<2>;8G5A:8 8, =5A<>B@O =0 MB>, >1JOA=OBL 53> A ?>78F89 :>=25@A8>==>9 <>45;8. #<5AB=55 1K;> 1K A?@>A8BL, =5 A;54C5B ;8 8A:0BL ?@8 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8E 701>;520=8OE, >B2;5:0OAL >B =0A;54AB25==> >1CA;>2;5==>9 ?@54@0A?>;>65==>AB8 : >@30=8G5A:><C A8<-?B><>>1@07>20=8N, B0:65 ?A8E8G5A:CN 48=0<8:C 8/8;8 4@C385 45B5@<8=0=BK. A8E>A><0B8G5A:0O >=F5?F8O . 8G5@;8E0 . 8G5@;8E >?8A0; :>=F5?F8N 42CED07=>3> 2KB5A=5=8O  48=0<8G5A:>3> 87<5=5=8O =52@>7>2 8 A><0B8G5A:8E 701>;520=89 [A. Mitscherlich, 1953/54]. = 8AE>48B 87 =01;N45=8O, GB> ?@8 BO6Q;KE :@870E A><0B8G5A:>3> 701>;520=8O =52@>7 <>65B 284>87<5=OBLAO 8;8 4065 8AG570BL. 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lexander, 1978]. A=>2=>5 2=8<0=85 ;5:A0=45@ C45;8; 2>?@>AC M<>F8>=0;L=>9 A?5F8D8G=>AB8 2535B0B82=KE =52@>7>2. = ?>;0305B, GB> A@K2 2535B0B82=KE DC=:F89 A2O70= A M<>F8>=0;L=K< A>AB>O=85< 2 >?@545;Q==KE :>=D;8:B=KE A8BC0F8OE 2 1>;LH59 <5@5, G5< A B8?>;>3859 ;8G=>AB8 2 ?@>H;><. ;O B0:>3> 701>;520=8O, :0: O725==0O 1>;57=L 425=04F0B8?5@AB=>9 :8H:8, >1I59 E0@0:B5@8AB8:>9 4>;65= 1KBL =5 >?@545;Q==K9 B8? ;8G=>AB8, 0 A:>@55 B8?8G=0O =5>A>7=0==0O :>=D;8:B=0O A8BC0F8O, :>B>@0O @0728205BAO C A0<KE @07=KE ;8G=>AB59 8 70B5< <>65B ?@8>1@5B0BL 4><8=8@CNI55 7=0G5=85 2 687=8 MB8E ;N459. A;8 A;54>20BL ?@8<5@C ;5:A0=45@0, B> 2 A8BC0F8OE, :>B>@K5 ?5@56820;8AL 2 @0==5< 45BAB25 1C4CI8<8 1>;L=K<8 :0: CB@0B0 701>B;82>3> >B=>H5=8O 8 >15A?5G5=8O ?8B0=85<, =5>A>7=0==>5 65;0=85 1KBL ;N18<K< 8 ?@8 =5>1E>48<>AB8  =0:>@<;5==K< <>65B A<5I0BLAO. 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Alexander 8 A>02B., 1967] 8 24>E=>28; <=>38E ?A8-E>A><0B8:>2 =0 =0CG=K5 8AA;54>20=8O, F5==>ABL :>B>@KE A>E@0=O5BAO 8 ?>=K=5, =0?@8<5@ ?@8 ?5?B8G5A:>9 O725 [. Weiner 8 A>02B., 1957], 38-?5@B8@5>75 [. Wittkower, 1957].  8A. 4. !E5<0B8G5A:>5 87>1@065=85 ?>=OB8O A?5F8D8G=>AB8 2 MB8>;>388 2535B0B82=KE =0@CH5=89 DC=:F89 [7 :=.: Alexander F. Psychosomatische Medizin, De Gruyter. Berlin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rinker (1961) A><=520;AO 2 <5;LG09H8E @07;8G8OE >?@545;Q==KE ;8G=>AB=KE 8 :>=D;8:B=KE B8?>;>389, 2 :>B>@KE >= CA<0B@820; ;8HL >48=0:>2>5 A>G5B0=85 7028A8<>AB8, =5C40G 8 2@06451=>AB8, >B<5G0NI55AO A <>=>B>==>9 ?>2B>@O5<>ABLN C 2A5E ;N459. @8B8:5 ?>425@3;>AL B0:65 8 206=>5 ?>;>65=85 :>=F5?F88 ;5:-A0=45@0 > B><, GB> :064>5 M<>F8>=0;L=>5 A>AB>O=85 A>740QB A2>9 A>1AB25==K9 D878>;>38G5A:89 A8=4@>< [F. Alexander, 1951].  A25B5 M<?8@8G5A:8E 40==KE 38?>B570 > B><, GB> :0640O M<>F8>=0;L=0O :>=AB5;;OF8O 8<55B A>1AB25==K9 D878>;>38G5A:89 >1@075F, =5 ?>4B25@48;0AL [S. Schachter 8 J. Singer, 1962]. (01;>==K5 2535B0B82=K5 @50:F88 8<5NB >3@0=8G5==K9 E0@0:B5@; >=8 >4=>>1@07=K, <0;>?;0AB8G=K 8 ?@8 @07=KE @074@068B5;OE ?@>B5:0NB 4>2>;L=> <>=>B>==>. @54AB02;O5BAO, GB> ?@8>1I5=85 0DD5:B82=>3> :>@@5;OB0 (2K1>@ >@30=0) B0:65 A>3;0AC5BAO A 8=48284C0;L=>9 8AB>@859 687=8. -:A?5@8<5=B0;L=K5 ?A8E>;>38G5A:85 8AA;54>20=8O [J. Lacey 8 . Lacey, 1958] GQB:> ?>:070;8, GB> E>BO @07=K5 8=48284CC<K 2 AE>4=KE A8BC0F8OE 8 @5038@CNB >48=0:>2K<8 D878>;>38G5A:8<8 0DD5:B0<8, => MB8 0DD5:BK <>3CB 1KBL >1CA;>2;5=K @07;8G=K<8 A><0B8G5A:8<8 ?@>F5AA0<8. $>@<C;8@>2:8, 40==K5 ;5:A0=45@>< A?5F8D8G5A:8< ?A8E>;>38G5A:8< :>=D;8:B0<, 2K720;8 <=>3> 2>7@065=89, 87-70 :>B>@KE 1K;8 701KBK 4@C385 53> 2KA:07K20=8O.  459AB28B5;L=>AB8 53> 2>A?@8OB85 MB8E 1>;57=59 8<5;> B@8 0A?5:B0: 1. !?5F8D8G5A:89 :>=D;8:B ?@54@0A?>;0305B ?0F85=B>2 : >?@545;Q==K< 701>;520=8O< B>;L:> B>340, :>340 : MB><C 8<5NBAO 4@C385 (2 B> 2@5<O 5IQ =5 8725AB=K5) 35=5B8G5A:85, 18>E8<8G5A:85 8 D878>;>38G5A:85 %-D0:B>@K. 2. ?@545;Q==K5 687=5==K5 A8BC0F88, 2 >B=>H5=88 :>B>@KE ?0F85=B A5=A818;878@>20= 2 A8;C A2>8E :;NG52KE :>=D;8:B>2, @50:B828@CNB 8 CA8;820NB MB8 :>=D;8:BK. 3. !8;L=K5 M<>F88 A>?@>2>640NB MB>B 0:B828@>20==K9 :>=D;8:B 8 =0 >A=>25 02B>=><=KE 3>@<>=0;L=KE 8 =5@2=><KH5G=KE <5E0=87<>2 459AB2CNB B0:8< >1@07><, GB> 2 >@30=87<5 2>7=8:0NB 87<5=5=8O 2 B5;5A=>9 AB@C:BC@5 8 DC=:F8OE. ;5:A0=45@ 40; Q<:85 >?@545;5=8O @07;8G=KE D0:B>@>2, :>B>@K5 83@0NB @>;L 2 MB8>;>388 8 ?0B>35=575 701>;520=8O.  53> B@C40E <K =0E>48< >?8A0=85 <=>65AB25==KE D0:B>@>2, ?@54@0A?>;030NI8E : @0728B8N >3@0=8G5==>3> G8A;0 701>;520=89 (:>B>@K5 >H81>G=> >?@545;ONBAO :0: 8A:;NG8B5;L=> ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:85). AE>4O 87 MB>3>, >= >?@545;8; 8AB>:8 @0728B8O 8 ?@>O2;5=8O ?A8E8G5A:8E :>=D;8:B>2 8 >1KG=K5 ?CB8 8E 876820=8O. A;8 =5B =8:0:>9 2>7<>6=>AB8 8E 87153=CBL, B> >=8 2K7K20NB, ?> <=5=8N ;5:A0=45@0, A8;L=K5 M<>F88. > 2 :>=F5 :>=F>2 >= 2>72@0I05BAO : C65 ?@Q>4>;Q==><C ;8=59=>-:0C70;L=><C 2>77@5=8N: M<>F88 2K7K20NB A><0B8G5A:85 87<5=5=8O. >A;5 2B>@>9 <8@>2>9 2>9=K ;5:A0=45@ ?>?KB0;AO A2O70BL ?A8E>0=0;8B8G5A:85, D878>;>38G5A:85 8 B5@0?52B8G5A:85 7=0=8O A2>53> 2@5<5=8 2 548=CN 2A5>1J5<;NICN A><0B8G5A:CN :>=F5?F8N. 0: 0=0;8B8:, :>B>@K9 3>B>2 8A:0BL =>2K5 ?CB8, >= 40; ?@8<5@ A>B@C4=8G5AB20 ?A8E>0=0;8B8:>2 8 708=B5@5A>20==KE :;8=8F8AB>2. A8E>A><0B8:0 AB0;0 <5648AF8?;8=0@=>9 >1;0ABLN 8AA;54>20=8O 8 2 A2O78 A MB8< ?>;CG8;0 2>7<>6=>ABL A8AB5<0B8G5A:>3> @0728B8O.  MB>< 70:;NG05BAO M2@8AB8G5A:>5 7=0G5=85 B5>@89 ;5:A0=45@0 4;O A>2@5<5==>9 <548F8=K. "5>@88 ;5:A0=45@0 8 53> CG5=8:>2 AB0;8 4>AB>O=85< 8AB>@88 ?>A;5 B>3>, :0: ?@>87>H;0 =5>1E>48<0O 48DD5@5=F8@>2:0 ?@8=OBKE B>340 =>7>;>38G5A:8E 548=8F  1@>=E80;L=>9 0AB<K, 38?5@B8@5>70 8 4@., :>B>@K<8 >= ?>;L7>20;AO.  =0AB>OI55 2@5<O MB8 4803=>7K AB02OB 1>;55 48DD5@5=F8@>20==>, A CGQB>< ?0B>35=570 8 2708<>459AB28O A ?A8E>;>38G5A:8<8 8 A>F80;L=K<8 CA;>28O<8. #AB0@5; B0:65 273;O4 =0 A?5F8D8G5A:89 :>=D;8:B 8 2 1>;LH59 8;8 <5=LH59 <5@5 A2O70==K9 A MB8< ?>ABC;0B >1I53> 8;8 A?5F8D8G5A:>3> 4;O :>=D;8:B0 35=570, :>B>@K9 C65 =5 @0AA<0B@8205BAO :0: >A=>2=>9 ?0B>35=5B8G5A:89 ?@8=F8?. #B@0B8;0 0:BC0;L=>ABL AE5<0B8G5A:8 >1@8A>20==0O 8=B5@?@5B0F8O 1>;57=8 2 @0<:0E 0=B03>=8AB8G5A:>9 2535B0B82=>9 @53C;OF88. @8<5@>< <>65B A;C68BL B>B D0:B, GB> ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8 7=0G8<K< 2 ?>=OB88 1@>=E80;L=0O 0AB<0 O2;O5BAO >1I0O 38?5@@50:B82=>ABL 1@>=E80;L=>9 <CA:C;0BC@K. A=>2C 5Q A>AB02;O5B A2>5>1@07=>5 203>A8<?0B8G5A:>5 2708<>459AB285. @8 MB>< =5B ?@54?>;0305<>3> 0=B03>=87<0, 0 ?@>8AE>48B A?5F8D8G5A:>5 8=B53@8@>20=85 548=KE DC=:F89. A>1> A?5F8D8G5A:>5, 70B@03820NI55 >@30=K DC=:F8>=0;L=>5 548=AB2> 2AB@5G05BAO =0 ?@>BO65=88 687=8 2> 2708<>459AB288 5Q A?5F8D8G5A:8E 8 =5A?5F8D8G5A:8E 2=5H=8E CA;>289 8 ?A8E8G5A:>9 CAB0=>2:8 8 ?5@5@01>B:8. 'B> :0A05BAO ?@>B82>?>AB02;5=8O A?5F8D8G5A:>3> 8 =5A?5F8D8G5A:>3> ?@8 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8E 701>;520=8OE, B>, ?> A>2@5<5==K< 2>77@5=8O< A 8E >?>A@54>20==K<8 8 48DD5@5=F8@>20==K<8 >F5=:0<8, 2 MB>< =5B 0;LB5@=0B82K [G. Engel, H. Weiner].  B> 2@5<O :0: ;5:A0=45@ 8 53> CG5=8:8 C45;O;8 >A>1>5 2=8<0=85 ?@>1;5<5 A?5F8D8G=>AB8 8 B0: =07K205<><C 2K1>@C >@30=0, @O4 ?A8E>0=0;8B8G5A:8 >@85=B8@>20==KE 8AA;54>20B5;59 ?>H;8 8=K< ?CBQ<. J. Ruesch (1948), H. Shands (1953), D@0=FC7A:85 8AA;54>20B5;8 P. Marty 8 . de Muzan (1963), 0 B0:65 J. Nemiah 8 P. Sifneos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uesch, 1948]. 'C2AB20 8A?KBK20NBAO, 5A;8 >=8 2>>1I5 8<5NBAO, :0: =5GB> 3;CE>=5AB@C:BC@8@>20==>5, 2> 2AO:>< A;CG05 =5?5@540205<>5 A;>20<8. =8 G0AB> >?8AK20NBAO G5@57 >:@C60NI8E (<>O 65=0 A:070;0... 2@0G A:070;...) ;81> 2<5AB> GC2AB2 >?8AK205BAO A><0B8G5A:0O @50:F8O. 3. @8<5G0B5;L=>, GB> ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:85 ?0F85=BK >G5=L ?@8A?>A>1;5=K : B>20@8I5A:8< >B=>H5=8O<, GB> 4065 >?@545;O5BAO :0: 38?5@=>@<0;L=>ABL. E A2O78 A :>=:@5B=K< ?0@B=Q@>< E0@0:B5@87CNBAO A2>5>1@07=>9 ?CAB>B>9 >B=>H5=89. >A:>;L:C >=8 =5 2 A>AB>O=88 @0718@0BLAO 2 ?A8E>;>38G5A:8E AB@C:BC@0E, B> >AB0NBAO =0 C@>2=5 :>=:@5B=>3> ?@54<5B=>3> 8A?>;L7>20=8O >1J5:B>2. 4. 7-70 7045@6:8 =0 A8<18>B8G5A:>< C@>2=5 8 A2O70==>3> A MB8< =54>AB0B:0 48DD5@5=F8@>2:8 AC1J5:B  >1J5:B 2KB5:05B =5A?>A>1=>ABL : 8AB8==K< >B=>H5=8O< A >1J5:B>< 8 : ?@>F5AAC ?5@5=>A0. @>8AE>48B B>B0;L=>5 845=B8D8F8@>20=85 A >1J5:B><; ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:89 1>;L=>9 ACI5AB2C5B, B0: A:070BL, A ?><>ILN 8 1;03>40@O =0;8G8N 4@C3>3> G5;>25:0 (53> :;NG52>9 D83C@K). BAN40 AB0=>28BAO ?>=OB=K<, ?>G5<C ?>B5@O (2K<KH;5==0O 8;8 @50;L=0O) MB>9 :;NG52>9 D83C@K (?>B5@O >1J5:B0) B0: G0AB> >1=0@C68205BAO :0: ?@>2>F8@CNI0O A8BC0F8O 2 =0G0;5 (8;8 ?@8 CEC4H5=88) 1>;57=8. ;O >1JOA=5=8O MB8E 40==KE 1K;> 2K428=CB> ?OBL @07;8G=KE MB8>;>38G5A:8E 38?>B57. 1. 8?>B570 45D8F8B0.  5Q >A=>2C ?>;>65=> <=5=85 J. Ruesch > B><, 1C4B> C MB8E 1>;L=KE 8<55B <5AB> ?5@28G=>-70AB@520NI55 =0 1>;55 @0==59 AB0488 @0728B85, 0 =5 D8:A0F8O A ?@8A>548=ONI59AO @53@5AA859, :0: MB> ?@>8AE>48B ?@8 =52@>70E. -B0 38?>B570 8<55B 206=>5 7=0G5=85 8 4;O B5@0?88, :>B>@0O 2:;NG05B 0A?5:B @0728B8O. 2. 8?>B570 @53@5AA88 2A;54AB285 B@02<8@>20=8O ?>4@07C<5205B ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:>5 A8<?B><>>1@07>20=85 0=0;>38G=> B@0:B>2:5 =52@>B8G5A:8E A8<?B><>2 :0: A;54AB28O D8:A0F88 =0 B@02<8@CNI5< D0:B>@5 A ?@8A>548=ONI59AO @53@5AA859 =0 1>;55 @0==NN AB048N @0728B8O. -B0 <>45;L =5 <>65B, >4=0:>, >1JOA=8BL, ?>G5<C 2>7=8:05B A><0B8G5A:89, 0 =5 ?A8E8G5A:89 A8<?B><. 3. 8?>B570 =0A;54>20=8O ?>:0 =5 <>65B >1AC640BLAO, ?>A:>;L:C 4;O 5Q >1>A=>20=8O A;8H:>< <0;> 4>AB>25@=KE 40==KE. 4. 8?>B570 =59@>0=0B><8G5A:8-=59@>D878>;>38=5A:>3> =0@CH5=8O. <5NBAO A:>@55 A?5:C;OB82=K5 ?@54?>;>65=8O (DC=:F8>=0;L=0O :><8AAC-@>B><8O) [>@@5 8 Bogen, 1977], :>B>@K5 ?@54AB02;ONBAO =525@>OB=K<8. "> 65 >B=>A8BAO 8 : A;54CNI59 38?>B575. 5. 8?>B570 A>F80;L=>-?A8E>;>38G5A:>3> D>@<8@>20=8O @50:F88.  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M<?8@8G5A:8E =01;N45=8OE A 0=0;87>< @5G8, ?@8 :>B>@>< >F5=820NB 2KA:07K20=8O =52@>B8:>2 8 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8 1>;L=KE 2 A8BC0F88 8=B5@2LN 8 A@02=820NB 8E, >1=0@C6820NBAO 70<5B=K5 8 E0@0:B5@=K5 @07;8G8O. 5GL ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8 1>;L=>3> 154=55 ?> >1JQ<C 8 ?> A>45@60=8N 8 <5=55 2K@078B5;L=0 [. Rad, 1983]. @8 ?@>5:B82=KE B5AB>2KE 8AA;54>20=8OE, =0?@8<5@ A ?><>ILN B5AB0 >@H0E0, ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8 1>;L=K5 ?> A@02=5=8N A =52@>B8:0<8 >1=0@C6820NB A8=4@>< =54>AB0B:0 D0=B0788 [R. Vogt 8 A>02B., 1979]. ">B D0:B, GB> @5GL <>65B 84B8 > @07;8G8OE 2 8=B5;;5:BC0;L=>< C@>2=5 8AA;54>20B5;O 8 ?0F85=B0, A>740NI8E B@C4=>AB8 2 >1I5=88, A53>4=O C65 =5 CG8BK205BAO.  A>>B25BAB288 A MB8< 2>7=8:05B =5>1E>48<>ABL @072820BL >A>1CN AB@0B538N ;5G5=8O ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8 1>;L=KE [W. Bmutigam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atson), . !:8==5@0 (. Skinner), . %0;;0 (!. Hull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urnbull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eyer 8 . Chesser, 1971; J. Lacey 8 A>02B., 1963]. !%!"'! /  !&$'! "!  #( !!"/ 5:>B>@K5 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:85 B5>@88 >?8AK20NB ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:85 A2O78 :0: B8?8G=K9 ?@8<5@ A?5F8D8G5A:>3> A8BC0F8>==>3> >B25B0 =0 =03@C7:8 8 2>2A5 =5 2 @0<:0E >?@545;Q==>9 AB@C:BC@K ;8G=>AB8 8;8 A?5F8D8G5A:>9 ?A8E>48=0<8G5A:>9 :>=D83C@0F88. X. >;DD [. Wolff, 1947] ?>;030;, GB> =5B =8:0:>9 CAB>9G82>AB8 8 GQB:> >B3@0=8G5==>9 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:>9 A?5F8D8G=>AB8 ;8G=>AB=>3> :>=D;8:B0 8 701>;520=8O >@30=0. = AB028; B0:65 2>?@>A >1 C=825@A0;L=>AB8 ?>4G8=Q==KE >@30=0< ;8G=>AB=KE E0@0:B5@8AB8: 65;C4>G=>3> 1>;L=>3>, 38?5@B>=8:0 8 B.4. @><5 B>3>, >= AG8B0;, GB> A?5F8D8G=>ABL A;54C5B 8A:0BL =5 2 ?@>O2;5=8OE 0=0B><8G5A:>9 ;>:0;870F88, 0 2 E0@0:B5@5 DC=:F8>=0;L=>3> @5038@>20=8O. !8<?B><K A> AB>@>=K 65;C4>G=>-:8H5G=>3> B@0:B0 C >4=>3> G5;>25:0 <>3CB ?@54AB02;OBL A>1>9 B8?8G=K9 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:89 >B25B 2 2845 ?>2KH5=8O :8A;>B=>AB8 8 >1@07>20=8O O72K, 0 C 4@C3>3> (8;8 C B>3> 65 A0<>3>) G5;>25:0 >=8 <>3CB 8<5BL E0@0:B5@ 70I8B=>9 @50:F88 2 D>@<5 @2>BK 8 :0@48>A?07<0. !0<K<8 ?>:070B5;L=K<8, ?> <=5=8N >;DD0, 1K;8 1K B5 D>@<K @50:F88, :>B>@K5 2>7=8:0NB 2 C3@>60NI8E A8BC0F8OE, ?@8GQ< >= CG8BK205B B0:65 <>18;870F8>==K5 DC=:F88 2 ?>=8<0=88 #>;B5@0 5==>=0 (W. Cannon) :0: A>740NI85 3>B>2=>ABL : H01;>==K< @50:F8O< 2 :@878A=>9 A8BC0F88 (:><?;5:A 70I8B=KE @50:F89). !?5F8D8G=>ABL 273;O4>2 >;DD0, 0 B0:65 #. @59A0 (W. Grace) 8 . @ME5<0 (D. Graham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race 8 D. Graham (1952) ?>4GQ@:820NB, GB> <=>385 ?0F85=BK <5=LH5 ?>;030NBAO =0 A2>8 2=CB@5==85 ?5@56820=8O 2 ?5@8>4 1>;57=8, G5< =0 A2>Q ?>2545=85 2 MB>9 A8BC0F88. > 2AO:>< A;CG05, >=8 ;CGH5 >A>7=0NB A2>8 @50:F88, A2>9 >B25B =0 B@C4=>AB8. 8?>B570 A?5F8D8G=>AB8 ?>78F88 >?8A0=0 02B>@0<8 :0: A?5F8D8G5A:0O A2O7L <564C ?>78F859, :>B>@0O 70=OB0 ?> >B=>H5=8N : =03@C7:5, 8 1>;57=LN, :>B>@0O 70 MB>9 =03@C7:>9 A;54C5B. >=OB85 ?>78F88 >E20BK205B, B0:8< >1@07><, B>, :0: =5:B> ?5@568205B ?@8G8=O5<K9 5<C CI5@1 8 :0: >= 2KE>48B 87 MB>3> ?>;>65=8O. !?>=B0==0O 2=CB@5==OO ?>78F8O 2:;NG05B B0:65 >?8A0=85 ?@>8AE>4OI8E ?@8 MB>< D878>;>38G5A:8E 87<5=5=89, O7K: ?5@56820=89 8 A>>B25BAB2CNI89 ?>78F88 O7K: B5;0. @8 1@>=E80;L=>9 0AB<5, =0?@8<5@, @50:F8O A;878ABKE >1>;>G5: >@30=>2 4KE0=8O =0 ?0B>35==K9 D0:B>@ =0?@02;5=0 =0 B>, GB>1K C40;8BL 53> ?CBQ< =01CE0=8O, 38?5@A5:@5F88 8 >B45;5=8O A;878, 0 :>=5G=0O 70I8B0 ?@>8AE>48B 2 D>@<5 AC65=8O 4KE0B5;L=KE ?CB59 8 C<5=LH5=8O 4KE0B5;L=>9 ?>25@E=>AB8. -B>B ?@>F5AA A>>B25BAB2C5B A?5F8D8G5A:><C >B=>H5=8N 1>;L=>3> : A8BC0F88 1>;57=8, :>B>@0O 70:;NG05BAO 2 >BAB@0=5=88 >B M<>F8>=0;L=>3> =0?@O65=8O, A>740205<>3> >BO3>I0NI59 A8BC0F859, ?CBQ< CE>40 8 87>;OF88 >B =5Q. W. Grace 8 D. Graham (1952) >1=0@C68;8 C 128 1>;L=KE, AB@040NI8E 12 @07;8G=K<8 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8<8 A8<?B><>:><?;5:A0<8, 1>;55 180 @07;8G=KE E0@0:B5@=KE >AB@KE 1>;57=5==KE ?@>O2;5==9. =8 >?8AK20NB >?@545;Q==K5 D>@<K ?>2545=8O, :>B>@K5 ?>2B>@ONBAO ?@8 @07=KE 3@C??0E 701>;520=89. ?@>AK, ?@>4>;602H85AO 2 B5G5=85 G0A0, ?>2B>@O;8AL A?CABO <5AOFK 8 3>4K, ?@8GQ< ?0F85=BK ?>A5I0;8 2@0G0 =5A:>;L:> @07 2 <5AOF. 5A<>B@O =0 :@8B8G5A:85 >F5=:8, C:07K20NI85, GB> >?8A0=8O >:070;8AL >G5=L =5E0@0:B5@=K<8, ?>765 D. Graham 8 A>02B. (1962) ?>?KB0;8AL M:A?5@8<5=B0;L=> >1J5:B828@>20BL :>=F5?F8N ?CBQ< ?@>2545=8O A;5?KE >?KB>2. ;O MB>3> 2 B5@0?52B8G5A:>< AB0F8>=0@5 1K;> ?@>2545=> 8=B5@2LN 2 42CE 3@C??0E 1>;L=KE (>B 16 4> 20 1>;L=KE 2 3@C??5), :>B>@K5 ;5G8;8AL ?> ?>2>4C 12 @07;8G=KE ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8E 701>;520=89. KOA=8;8 60;>1K 8 CA;>28O 687=8 1>;L=KE : <><5=BC ?>O2;5=8O A8<?B><>2. 0B5< 1K;8 ?>4>1@0=K 425 3@C??K 8=B5@2LN5@>2, G0ABL 87 :>B>@KE 25@8;8 2 :>=F5?F8N W. Grace 8 D. Graham, 0 4@C385  =5B. 7 ?@54AB02;5==KE 8< A2545=89 C18@0;8 2A5 C:070=8O =0 4803=>7 701>;520=8O. 57028A8<> 4@C3 >B 4@C30 ?A8E>A><0B8:8 8 ?A8E>0=0;8B8:8 @5H0;8, A :0:8< ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8< 701>;520=85< >=8 8<5;8 45;>. 0: ?@8 A;5?>< 8=B5@2LN, B0: 8 A@548 A?5F80;8AB>2, =5A<>B@O =0 >3@0=8G5==K5 8AE>4=K5 40==K5, M:A?5@BK >1=0@C68;8 2KA>:CN AB5?5=L A>2?045=8O >F5=>:, :>B>@K<8 >?@545;O;>AL ?>2545=85, 2K720==>5 :>=D;8:B=>9 A8BC0F859, ?@82>4OI59 : ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:><C 701>;520=8N. =B5@2LN, :>B>@K5 1K;8 ?@>2545=K E>@>H> 7=0:><K<8 A 38?>B57>9 8=B5@2LN5@0<8, >:070;8AL 1>;55 ?;>4>B2>@=K<8: >=8 40;8 1>;55 2KA>:CN AB5?5=L B>G=>AB8.  ?;0=5 ?>4E>40, :>B>@K9 <K E0@0:B5@87C5< :0: A?5F8D8G=>ABL ?>2545=8O [W. Brautigam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uytendijk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annon), B0: 8 0=A0 !5;L5 (. Selye). 5@2K9 :0: D878>;>3 87CG0; 87<5=5=8O, A>?@>2>640NI85 M<>F8>=0;L=K5 A>AB>O=8O, =0?@8<5@ AB@0E, 3>;>4 8 1>;L.  ?@>B82>?>;>6=>ABL 5<C 2@0G !5;L5 8=B5@5A>20;AO B5<, 2 :0:>9 <5@5 >BO3>I0NI85 AB8<C;K (@074@068B5;8) <>3CB 2K7K20BL A><0B8G5A:85 701>;520=8O (1936). 4=0:> B@C4=> >?@545;Q==> CB25@640BL, GB> AB8<C;K !5;L5 A@07C 8 =5?>A@54AB25==> 459AB2CNB ?>2@5640NI8< >1@07>< =0 >@30=87< :@KA. > CA;>28O< >?KB0 682>B=K< 70B@C4=O;0AL ;N10O 2>7<>6=>ABL 2K@01>B:8 ?@8A?>A>18B5;L=>9 @50:F88. !53>4=O <K 7=05<, GB> 0=0B><8G5A:85 ?>2@5645=8O :0: A;54AB285 AB@5AA0 <>3CB C<5=LH0BLAO 8;8 7045@6820BLAO, 5A;8 682>B=>5 8<55B 2>7<>6=>ABL @5038@>20BL =0 >BO3>I0NI85 AB8<C;K. A;54AB285 ?@54AB02;5=8O > B><, GB> AB@5AA>@=K5 AB8<C;K <>3CB 1KBL G@57<5@=K<8 8 B@02<8@CNI8<8, ?@>3@5AA 87CG5=8O AB@5AA0 O2=> 70B>@<>78;AO. 0 ?@0:B8:5 =5<=>385 02B>@K 5IQ 8 A53>4=O AC4OB > 2K@065==>AB8 AB@5AA0 ?> 53> A><0B8G5A:8< ?>A;54AB28O<. AA;54>20=85 AB@5AA0 8<55B ?QAB@CN 8AB>@8N; 2 =Q< G0AB8G=> 8A?>;L7>20;0AL B@048F8O :>=B@>;L=>3> M:A?5@8<5=B0 A 18>;>38G5A:8 =5?@85<;5<K<8 (=0?@8<5@, M;5:B@>H>:), =5?>4E>4OI8<8 (=0?@8<5@, 8=J5:F88 :@5B>=>2>3> <0A;0) 8;8 45?@82088>==K<8 (=0?@8<5@, 87>;OF8O A>F80;L=KE 682>B=KE 2 :;5B:0E) A8BC0F8O<8. !B@5AAK =59B@0;87>20;8AL 0=5AB57859.  4@C38E A;CG0OE 2KA>:>B@5=8@>20==K5 682>B=K5 ?>425@30;8AL >?KB0<, 2 :>B>@KE >=8 4>;6=K 1K;8 2K?>;=OBL >1KG=K5 18>;>38G5A:85 7040=8O, 70 8A:;NG5=85< 7040=89, A2O70==KE A 871530=85< 1>;8. @8 ?>4>1=KE =55AB5AB25==KE M:A?5@8<5=B0;L=KE CA;>28OE 8 2K720==KE 8<8 MDD5:B0E (O720 65;C4:0, 38?5@?;078O =04?>G5G=8:>2 8 :@>2>87;8O=8O 2 >@30=K 8<<C==>9 A8AB5<K) 45;0;8 =5045:20B=K5 70:;NG5=8O > B><, :0: 682>B=K5 254CB A51O 2 ?@8@>4=KE CA;>28OE: :0: @01>B05B <>73 8 :0: 4>;6=0 2>7=8:0BL 1>;57=L (?>2@5645=85 >@30=0). > 8AA;54>20=85 AB@5AA0 ?>AB@040;> B0:65 >B 2;8O=8O ?@>?030=48@>20==>9 !5;L5 (1970) 8458, A>3;0A=> :>B>@>9 AB@5AA 1C4B> 1K ?@54AB02;O5B A>1>9 =5A?5F8D8G5A:CN @50:F8N >@30=87<0 =0 ;N1>5 B@51>20=85.  MB>< >?@545;5=88 >BACBAB2C5B C:070=85 =0 B>, GB> 2>7459AB285 AB@5A-A>@=KE D0:B>@>2 8<55B :0: ?>2545=G5A:85 8 ?A8E8G5A:85, B0: 8 A><0B8G5A:85 ?>A;54AB28O. =>385 682>B=K5 ?@>O2;ONB @07=>>1@07=CN AB@0B538N ?>2545=8O, GB>1K 2K68BL 2 A>AB>O=88 C3@>7K 8E 687=8 (=0?@8<5@, =0;8G85 E8I=KE 2@03>2). -B8 ?>2545=G5A:85 @50:F88, 5A;8 >=8 CA?5H=K, 4>;6=K A>>B25BAB2>20BL C3@>75 8;8 2K7>2C; 5A;8 65 >=8 A;CG09=K 8 =5A?5F8D8G=K, B> =5 >15A?5G820NB 2K6820=8O. A;8 687=8 C3@>605B 8=D5:F8O, B> MB> 7=0G8B, GB> 8<<C==0O @50:F8O >@30=87<0 =54>AB0B>G=0. A;8 @5?@>4C:B82=><C @57C;LB0BC 2AB@5G8 A0<F0 8 A0<:8 <5H05B A>?5@=8:, B> 4>;6=0 2>7=8:0BL 045:20B=0O @50:F8O 2 1>@L15 A :>=:C@5=B>< 2 2845 ?>4G8=5=8O 8;8 153AB20 4;O ?>8A:0 4@C3>3> ?>;>2>3> ?0@B=Q@0. >=04>18;>AL <=>3> ;5B, GB>1K :B>-;81> @5H8;AO ?>425@3=CBL A><=5=8N >A=>2=>9 B578A !5;L5 > B><, GB> 8<5NBAO ;8HL >1I85 @50:F88 =0 AB@5AA [Gibbs, 1986; L. Hinkle, 1974; J. Mason, 1968; H. Weiner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einer, 1992]. "0:8< >1@07><, <>6=> A45;0BL A;54CNI89 2K2>4 > 2;8O=88 B5>@89 AB@5AA0 8 87CG5=8O AB@5AA0 =0 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:CN <548F8=C: AB@5AA>2K5 A8BC0F88 ?@54AB02;ONB A>1>9 A5;5:B82=K5 =03@C7:8 A0<>3> @07=>3> @>40 8 4;8B5;L=>AB8 (?A8E8G5A:85, <56;8G=>AB=K5 8 A>F80;L=K5). =8 C3@>60NB AC1J5:BC 8;8 ?>1C640NB >@30=87< GB>-B> 45;0BL, GB>1K 8E ?@5>4>;520BL, >2;04520BL 8<8 8;8 >BAB@0=OBLAO >B =8E. 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MB>9 B>G:8 7@5=8O 4;O >?@545;5=8O 1>;57=8 4>AB0B>G=> :>@@5;OF88 <564C ?@8G8=>9 ?>2@5645=8O 8 A8<?B><0<8 1>;57=8. > :>@@5;OF8O <564C AC1J5:B82=K<8 60;>10<8, A8<?B><0B8:>9 8 >@30=8G5A:8< ?>2@5645=85< =5 AB>;L B5A=0O. @><5 B>3>, 1>;L=>9 <>65B 1KBL ?@54@0A?>;>65= : 1>;57=8, =5 1C4CG8 1>;L=K< 8;8 =5 GC2AB2CO A51O 1>;L=K<. = <>65B 4065 8<5BL 1>;57=L 8 1KBL ?@8 MB>< ?@0:B8G5A:8 74>@>2K< 8;8 =5 AB@040BL, =5A<>B@O =0 =0;8G85 1>;57=8, B.5. =5 GC2AB2>20BL A51O 1>;L=K<. ! 4@C3>9 AB>@>=K, >= <>65B GC2AB2>20BL A51O 1>;L=K< 8 AB@040BL, =5 1C4CG8 1>;L=K<. 07;8G=0O @8@>40 >;57=8, 'C2AB20 >;57=8 8 !B@040=8O 065 2 ;01>@0B>@=KE CA;>28OE 2>A?@>872545=85 1>;57=59 C 682>B=KE E0@0:B5@87C5BAO 1>;LH>9 20@8015;L=>ABLN 87-70 B>3>, GB> A;8H:>< <=>385 D0:B>@K CG0AB2CNB 2 MB>< [R. Ader, 1980]. !@548 ;N459, C :>B>@KE 8<55BAO >G5284=K9 @8A: @0728B8O >?@545;Q==>3> 701>;520=8O 8 :>B>@K5 ?>425@65=K >48=0:>2K< 87<5=5=8O< 8 BO3>B0< 2 A2>59 687=8, 701>;520NB ;8HL =5<=>385 [. Weiner 8 A>02B., 1957]; MB8E =5<=>38E =5;L7O >?@545;8BL 70@0=55, =5A<>B@O =0 =0;8G85 8725AB=KE D0:B>@>2 @8A:0. @><5 B>3>, D0:B>@K, A2O70==K5 A ?>O2;5=85< 60;>1 8 1>;57=8, >B;8G0NBAO G0AB>, 5A;8 =5 2A5340, >B B5E, :>B>@K5 >?@545;ONB 1>;57=5==K9 ?@>F5AA. "0:, =0?@8<5@, >H81>G=>5 D878>;>38G5A:>5 ?@8A?>A>1;5=85 >@30=87<0 : 2KA>:8< F8D@0< 0@B5@80;L=>3> 402;5=8O, :>B>@>5 53> ?>445@68205B, >B;8G05BAO >B D878>;>38G5A:8E D0:B>@>2, :>B>@K5 53> 2K7K20NB [. Weiner, 1979]. !>3;0A=> 273;O40< 09=5@0, ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:85 A2O78 <>3CB 1KBL ?@>A;565=K 2?;>BL 4> :;5B>G=KE 8 3C<>@0;L=KE ?@>F5AA>2 8 ?@8=OBK 2> 2=8<0=85. "0:... 8=B53@0B82=K9 ?>4E>4 AB@5<8BAO >1@0B8BL 2=8<0=85 =0 <=>3>G8A;5==K5 D0:B>@K, :>B>@K5 >B25BAB25==K 70 ?@54@0A?>;>65==>ABL, 2KO2;5=85, ?>445@60=85 8 @07;8G=>5 A?>=B0==>5 B5G5=85 AB@040=8O 8 1>;57=8 8 8E ?>A;54AB28O 4;O 1>;L=>3>, 53> A5<L8 8 >1I5AB20, 2 :>B>@>< >= 682QB... [. Weiner, 1981]. =>3>>1@07=K5, @07=>AB>@>==85 2708<>459AB2CNI85 D0:B>@K <>3CB 1KBL 35=5B8G5A:8<8, 10:B5@80;L=K<8, 8<<C==K<8, ?8I52K<8, ?A8E>;>38G5A:8<8, >1CA;>2;5==K<8 ?>2545=85< 8 A>F80;L=K<8  >4=8< A;>2><, 2A5 701>;520=8O 8<5NB <=>3>D0:B>@=K9 35=57. =B53@0B82=0O ?>78F8O >@85=B8@>20=0 =0 ?@>F5AA, 0 =5 =0 AB@C:BC@C. =0 ?KB05BAO >1JOA=8BL B>B ?0@04>:A0;L=K9 D0:B, GB> C G5;>25:0 <>3CB 2>7=8:0BL A8<?B><K :0: ?@8 =0;8G88, B0: 8 ?@8 >BACBAB288 ?@87=0:>2 0=0B><8G5A:>3> ?>2@5645=8O 8;8 =0@CH5=89 D878>;>38G5A:8E DC=:F89. !B>@>==8:8 MB>9 ?>78F88 @0AA<0B@820NB AB@040=85 8 1>;57=L :0: @0A?04 18>;>38G5A:>3> ?@8A?>A>1;5=8O, :>B>@K9 <>65B, => =5 4>;65= ?@82>48BL : 0=0B><8G5A:8< ?>@065=8O<. -B>B @0A?04 <>65B ?@>87>9B8 =0 @07=KE C@>2=OE 18>;>38G5A:>9 >@30=870F88  >B ?A8E>;>38G5A:>9 4> 8<<C==>9, >= <>65B ?@8>1@5B0BL @07;8G=K5 D>@<K 8 A0<K<8 @07=K<8 ?CBO<8 ?@82>48BL : >4=><C 8 B><C 65 701>;520=8N. 09=5@ ?>4GQ@:8205B, GB> A>2<5AB=> 459AB2CNB <=>3>G8A;5==K5, 8=>340 ?@>B82>?>;>6=> =0?@02;5==K5 D0:B>@K, :>B>@K5 ?>445@6820NB 74>@>2L5 8 CG0AB2CNB 2 2>7=8:=>25=88 AB@040=8O 8 1>;57=8. @8 MB><, 5A;8 >B2;5GLAO >B A;CG052 M:7>35==>9 D878G5A:>9 B@02<K, =8:>340 =5 1K205B >B25BAB25==K< ;8HL >48= D0:B>@. -B8 D0:B>@K >E20BK20NB 480?07>= >B 35=5B8G5A:>9 48A?>78F88, 045:20B=>3> ?8B0=8O, ?@56=53> :>=B0:B0 A 8=D5:F8>==K< 035=B><, 8<<C==KE, 18>E8<8G5A:8E 8 D878>;>38G5A:8E @50:F89 =0 ?A8E>;>38N G5;>25:0 2?;>BL 4> 53> E0@0:B5@0 ?@8A?>A>1;5=8O : :C;LBC@=><C, A>F80;L=><C 8 <0B5@80;L=><C >:@C65=8N (A<. @0745; A8E8G5A:85 701>;520=8O). 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MB>9 B>G:8 7@5=8O =0 ?5@2K9 ?;0= 2KABC?0NB 7040G8, :>B>@K5 4>;6=K 1KBL >A=>2=K<8 2 B5>@88 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:>9 <548F8=K: A>740BL <>45;L >B=>H5=89 <564C >@30=87<>< 8 >:@C60NI59 A@54>9 8 <>45;L >B=>H5=89 <564C 18>;>38G5A:8<8, ?A8E8G5A:8<8 8 A>F80;L=K<8 ?@>F5AA0<8. @8<5=8B5;L=> : ?5@2>9 7040G5 Th. Uexkull 8 W. Wesiak (1990) ?>445@6820NB <>45;L DC=:F8>=0;L=>3> :@C30 /:>10 :A:N;O [J. Uexkull, 1920]. ?8A0=85 18>?A8E>A>880;L=KE DC=:F8>=0;L=KE A2O759 >ACI5AB2;O5BAO A ?><>ILN B5>@88 A8AB5< 8 A>2@5<5==>9 A5<8>B8:8. A8E>A><0B8G5A:0O <>45;L AB@5<8BAO @07@01>B0BL <>45;L 4;O B5;0, :>B>@0O A>>B25BAB2>20;0 1K <>45;8 4;O 4CH8, A B5< GB>1K 2@0G <>3 C2O70BL ?@>F5AAK, :>B>@K5 ?@>8AE>4OB =0 D878>;>38G5A:>< 8 A>F80;L=>< C@>2=OE. 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Wesiak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h. Uexkull 8 W. Wesiak, 1991].  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achele, 1985, 1988]. 2C:>70?8A8 MB8E 02B>@>2 =03;O4=> 45<>=AB@8@CNB, GB> ?A8E>0=0;8B8G5A:89 480;>3 A> AB>@>=K B5@0?52B0 =8 2 :>5< A;CG05 =5 4>;65= >3@0=8G820BLAO B>;:>20=85<. @8 MB>< B5:CI0O 687=5==0O A8BC0F8O ?0F85=B0 8 53> =K=5H=85 >B=>H5=8O 4;O B5@0?52B0 8<5NB 1>;LH55 7=0G5=85, G5< 53> @5B@>A?5:B820 8 @53@5AA8O.  F5;>< 2 ?A8E>0=0;875 =K=5 1>;LH>5 7=0G5=85 ?@840QBAO =5 >B=>H5=8O< ?5@5=5A5=8O, 0 @01>G5<C A>N7C, @50;8AB8G=K< >B=>H5=8O< [W. Brautigam, 1983] 8;8 @01>G8< >B=>H5=8O< [G. Rudolf, 1991], GB> A>>B25BAB2C5B B0:65 40==K< M<?8@8G5A:8E B5@0?52B8G5A:8E 8AA;54>20=89. A>1K5 B@51>20=8O <5B>40 ?@825;8 : B><C, GB> ?>:070=8O : =5<C 2 :;8=8:0E @57:> AC78;8AL.  0<1C;0B>@=>< >B45;5=88 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:>9 :;8=8:8 5945;L15@3A:>3> C=825@A8B5B0 2 ?>A;54=85 3>4K A@548 1000 >1@0I02H8EAO 1>;L=KE MB> ;5G5=85 ?@>E>48;8 2-3%. C6=> 1KBL 4>AB0B>G=> 74>@>2K< =52@>B8:><, GB>1K ?>;CG8BL ?>;L7C >B :;0AA8G5A:>3> ?A8E>0=0;870,  70<5B8; >4=064K 0<5@8:0=A:89 ?A8E>0=0;8B8: . @8=-A>= (R. Greenson). 0B0<=57K 1>;L=KE, ;5G82H8EAO A ?><>ILN ?A8E>0=0;870, >A>15==> BO65;>1>;L=KE 2 5==8=35@A:>9 :;8=8:5 2 !(, ?>:070;8 [Wallerstein, 1988], GB> 8 B0< C 1>;LH8=AB20 ?0F85=B>2 :;0AA8G5A:0O B5E=8:0 ;5G5=8O 284>87<5=8;0AL 8 22>48;8AL 4>?>;=8B5;L=K5 M;5<5=BK. -B8 87<5=5=8O :;0AA8G5A:>9 <5B>48:8, =0?@8<5@ F5@5<>=80; ;560=8O, <5=LH0O G0AB>B0 8 4;8B5;L=>ABL A50=A>2 (1-2 G) 8 ?@5645 2A53> 87<5=5=8O B0:B8:8 ?A8E>0=0;8B8:0, @0=55 >3@0=8G8202H53>AO B>;L:> B>;:>20=85<, A53>4=O H8@>:> @0A?@>AB@0=8;8AL 2 :;8=8G5A:>9 ?@0:B8:5. =0;8B8G5A:0O @C??>20O A8E>B5@0?8O <1C;0B>@=0O 8 AB0F8>=0@=0O 3@C??>20O ?A8E>B5@0?8O ?@>2>48BAO >1KG=> 2 70:@KBKE 3@C??0E, B.5. 5Q CG0AB=8:8 >B =0G0;0 4> :>=F0 ;5G5=8O >4=8 8 B5 65. ;8B5;L=>ABL 0<1C;0B>@=>9 3@C??>2>9 ?A8E>B5@0?88, :>B>@0O ?@>2>48BAO 1  2 @070 2 =545;N, A>AB02;O5B >B 1 3>40 4> 3 ;5B. ?B8<0;L=>5 G8A;> CG0AB=8:>2 6-8 G5;>25:. >;LH>5 ?@58<CI5AB2> DC??>2>9 B5@0?88 70:;NG05BAO 2 B><, GB> 4065 B5 ?0F85=BK, :>B>@K5 2=0G0;5 1K;8 <0;>>@85=B8@>20==K<8 2 >A>7=0=88 A>1AB25==>9 1>;57=8 8 ?@8G8= AB@040=8O, ?@8 3@C??>2>9 B5@0?88 =0G8=0NB <>B828@>20==> >B=>A8BLAO : A515. > 8 745AL <>65B 2AB@5G0BLAO ;8HL <8=8<C< 3>B>2=>AB8 : A0<>>F5=:5 A2>8E A>F80;L=KE A2O759 8 M<?0B8G5A:8E >B=>H5=89 A 4@C38<8 ;N4L<8. 0F85=B 4>;65= C<5BL CAB0=02;820BL <56;8G=>AB=K5 >B=>H5=8O A 4@C38<8 ;N4L<8 8 A ?A8E>B5@0?52B>< 8 ?@>O28BL 708=B5@5A>20==>ABL 2 MB><. @58<CI5AB2> 3@C??>2>9 B5@0?88 A>AB>8B 2 8=B5=A82=>9 ?@>@01>B:5 0:BC0;L=>9 B5<K 745AL 8 A59G0A 2 3@C??5 8 2 CAB0=>2;5=88 1;87:8E :>=B0:B>2 A 4@C38<8 ?0F85=B0<8, 40NI8E @0728B85 ?A8E8G5A:8E $C=:F89 8 1>;LH85 2>7<>6=>AB8 4;O A>7@520=8O ;8G=>AB8 2 F5;><. @C??>20O B5@0?8O 40QB B0:65 2>7<>6=>ABL A2>5>1@07=>3> <56G5;>25G5A:>3> B@5=8=30 A ?5@5=5A5=85< =5 B>;L:> =0 ?A8E>B5@0?52B0, => 8 =0 4@C38E G;5=>2 3@C??K (<C;LB8;0B5@0;L=>5 ?5@5=5A5=85), :>B>@>5 =52>7<>6=> ?@8 8=48284C0;L=>9 0=0;8B8G5A:>9 B5@0?88. > =5:>B>@K5 8=48284C0;L=K5 ?@>1;5<K @0728B8O =5 <>3CB ?@>@010BK20BLAO A?>A>1>< A@02=5=8O, :0: MB> 1K205B ?@8 8=48284C0;L=>9 B5@0?88, 0 MB> =5>1E>48<> ?@8 @O45 @0AAB@>9AB2. >:070=8O<8 : 3@C??>2>9 B5@0?88 O2;ONBAO =52@>B8G5A:85 @0AAB@>9AB20, ?@5645 2A53> DC=:F8>=0;L=K5 A8=4@><K, 0 B0:65 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:85 701>;520=8O, B0:85, :0: O725==K9 :>;8B, 1@>=E80;L=0O 0AB<0 8 4@., ?@8 :>B>@KE 1>;L=K5 =0E>4OB 1>;LHCN ?>445@6:C 2 045:20B=> ?>4>1@0==>9 3@C??5. ;O ?0F85=B>: A =5@2=>9 0=>@5:A859, :>B>@0O ?@>B5:05B 1>;LH59 G0ABLN BO65;>, =5>1E>48<K A?5F80;L=K5 <>48D8:0F88 3@C??>2>9 B5@0?88. @C??>20O ?A8E>B5@0?8O 1>;55 MDD5:B82=0 2 >B=>H5=88 ;8G=>AB59 C?@>H5==KE, =5 A:;>==KE : @5D;5:A88, :>B>@K5 5IQ =5 ?>=8<0NB ?A8E>35=570 A2>8E ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8E @0AAB@>9AB2. =8 1KAB@> ?@82K:0NB : 3@C??>2K< 70=OB8O< 8 <>3CB, 845=B8D8F8@COAL A 4@C38<8 G;5=0<8 3@C??K, ?@>45;0BL >?@545;Q==>5 @0728B85, =5 A;8H:>< >1@5<5=OO A51O MB8<, 8 4065 ?@8=8<0BL 0:B82=>5 CG0AB85 2 >1I59 @01>B5. A8E>A><0B8G5A:85 1>;L=K5, :>B>@K5 2=0G0;5 BO65;> 2>A?@8=8<0NB 8=B5@?@5B0F8N A2>8E ?@>1;5< :0: 4CH52=KE 8 70B@C4=ONBAO 3>2>@8BL > =8E, 2 3@C??5 <>3CB ;53G5 A>3;0A8BLAO A ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8< E0@0:B5@>< A2>53> AB@040=8O. ?KB ?>:07K205B, GB> 1>;L=K5 A BO6Q;K<8 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8<8 A>AB>O=8O<8 =0@O4C A 3@C??>2>9 B5@0?859 8;8 ?>A;5 =5Q =C640NBAO 2 8=48284C0;L=KE 15A540E, 0 B0:65 2 3;C18==>-?A8E>;>38G5A:>< 8;8 0=0;8B8G5A:>< ;5G5=88, B0: 65 :0: 8 1>;L=K5 A 2K@065==K<8 ?A8E>=52@>B8G5A:8<8 =0@CH5=8O<8 (=0?@8<5@, =52@>7K =02O7G82>AB8, 03>@0D>188). @>2545=85 3@C??>2>9 ?A8E>0=0;8B8G5A:>9 B5@0?88 B@51C5B >B 2@0G0 A?5F80;L=KE 7=0=89 2 MB>9 >1;0AB8, :>B>@K5 2> <=>3>< 4>AB830NBAO >?KB>< 8=48284C0;L=>9 ?A8E>0=0;8B8G5A:>9 B5@0?88. !5<59=0O "5@0?8O A8E>0=0;87 2=0G0;5 8AE>48; 87 2=CB@8?A8E8G5A:>9 :>=D;8:B=>9 A8BC0F88, B.5. 87 ?A8E>;>388 >B45;L=> 27OB>3> G5;>25:0, 0 2?>A;54AB288 AB0; C45;OBL 2AQ 1>;LH5 2=8<0=8O 87CG5=8N @50;L=>9 AD5@K >B=>H5=89 A2>8E ?0F85=B>2. 4=0:> :>=B0:B A 1;87:8<8 ?0F85=BC ;N4L<8 :0B53>@8G5A:8 8A:;NG0;AO 8 =5 ?@8=8<0;>AL 2> 2=8<0=85 2;8O=85 @50;L=>9 A>F80;L=>9, ?@>872>4AB25==>9 8 A5<59=>9 A@54K ?0F85=B0.  ?A8E>0=0;875 1>;L=>9 4>;65= 8<5BL 2>7<>6=>ABL ?CBQ< @0728B8O A2>59 ;8G=>AB8 >:070BL 2;8O=85 8 =0 87<5=5=85 A2>53> >:@C65=8O.  ?>A;54=85 45AOB8;5B8O =0@O4C A <=5=85< > B><, GB> A5<59=K5 >1AB>OB5;LAB20 <>3CB 2K7K20BL 8 ?>445@6820BL =52@>B8G5A:85 8 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:85 =0@CH5=8O, 2AQ 1>;LH55 @0A?@>AB@0=5=85 ?>;CG05B 4@C30O CAB0=>2:0. A8E>B5@0?52BK =K=5 3>B>2K ?@8 =5>1E>48<>AB8 @073>20@820BL B0:65 8 A @>4AB25==8:0<8 ?0F85=B>2, 8A?>;L7>20BL 8E ?><>IL 8 ?><>30BL 8< A0<8<; ;8HL 2 @54:8E A;CG0OE >=8 A:;>=ONBAO : ?@87=0=8N @>4=KE 28=>2=K<8 8 871530NB 8E. >4 2;8O=85< A5<59=>3> B5@0?52B8G5A:>3> 42865=8O, :>B>@>5 2>A?@8=8<05B A5<LN :0: ?0F85=B0 8 ?KB05BAO B5@0?52B8G5A:8 2>7459AB2>20BL =0 =5Q 2 F5;><, @0AH8@8;8AL ?5@A?5:B82K ;5G5=8O 1>;57=59. 5H0NI8< 745AL O2;O5BAO B>, GB> F5;LN ;5G5=8O AB0=>28BAO =5 >B45;L=K9 G5;>25:, 0 2 F5;>< A8AB5<0 A5<59=KE >B=>H5=89, :>B>@K5 =5>1E>48<> ?>=OBL 8 87<5=8BL [. Richter, 1970]. "0:, C65 3>2>@OB > H87>D@5=>35=-=KE 8 A>>B25BAB25==> ?@54@0A?>;>65==KE : =52@>70< 8 : ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8< 701>;520=8O< A5<LOE, ?@8GQ< ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:85 1>;L=K5 >:07K20NBAO :0: 1K 45;538@>20==K<8 >B =0@CH5==>9 A5<L8, O2;OOAL 2 =59 5IQ 8 A0<K<8 74>@>2K<8. -B> A>>B25BAB2C5B >?KBC ;5G5=8O ?0@, 2 :>B>@KE G0AB> 1>;55 A5=A8B82=K9 8 CO728<K9, A:;>==K9 : ?0B>;>388 1@0G=K9 ?0@B=Q@ 8 >1@0I05BAO 2 :0G5AB25 ?0F85=B0, =0AB0820O =0 ;5G5=88 8 =5>1E>48<>AB8 ?5@5<5= [J. Willi, 1975].  ?5@A?5:B825 1C4CI8E ?>:>;5=89 2>?@>AK >1 >B45;5=88 <>;>4>3> ?>:>;5=8O >B @>48B5;59, > :>=D;8:B0E <564C ?>:>;5=8O<8 A B5=45=F8O<8 : >3@0=8G5=8N, A45@6820=8N 8;8 @07@K2C >B=>H5=89, =5A><=5==>, AB0=CB B5<>9 :>=D;8:B0 [. Stierlin 8 A>02B., 1977].  =0AB>OI55 2@5<O <>;>4Q6L >1KG=>, =0?@8<5@, ?@8 =5@2=>9 0=>@5:A88, 1@>=E80;L=>9 0AB<5 8;8 O725==>< :>;8B5 2 @0<:0E A5<59=>9 B5@0?88 >701>G5=0 ?@>1;5<0<8 >B45;5=8O >B A5<L8 8 >1@5B5=8O A0<>AB>OB5;L=>AB8. !8AB5<=>-B5>@5B8G5A:8 >@85=B8@>20==0O A5<59=0O B5@0?8O @07@01>B0;0 :>=F5?F8N @0A?>;>65==KE =0 @07=KE C@>2=OE 2708<>A2O70==KE A8AB5<, :>B>@K5 2 A2>N >G5@54L =0E>4OBAO 2 A2O78 A 4@C38<8 C@>2=O<8. !5<59=K5 A8AB5<K 4>;6=K =0E>48BLAO 2> 2708<>A2O78 A D878G5A:8<8, 18>;>38G5A:8<8, ?A8E8G5A:8<8 8 >1I5AB25==K<8 A8AB5<0<8, B0: :0: 2A5 687=5==K5 ?@>F5AAK ?@>B5:0NB =5 87>;8@>20==>, 0 2> 2708<>>1CA;>2;5==>AB8. A5 ?@>O2;5=8O 2708<>A2O70=K 4@C3 A 4@C3><, ?@8GQ< MB> A@02=8205BAO A A0<>@53C;8@CNI8<AO :><?LNB5@>< :0: <>45;LN DC=:F8>=8@>20=8O A8AB5<K. 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"0:85 <5B>4K A0<>:>=B@>;O 8<5NB ?@58<CI5AB2>, 70:;NG0NI55AO 2 A>1AB25==>9 0:B82=>AB8 ?0F85=B0, 8 40NB 5<C GC2AB2> A>1AB25==>9 7=0G8<>AB8 8 >B25BAB25==>AB8 70 A2>Q ?>2545=85. !B@0B538O ?>;>68B5;L=>3> 8;8 >B@8F0B5;L=>3> ?>4:@5?;5=8O (=0?@8<5@, 2708<=>5 A>3;0A85) <>65B A CA?5E>< 8A?>;L7>20BLAO, 2 G0AB=>AB8, 4;O 2>7459AB28O =0 ?@>1;5<C E@>=8G5A:>9 1>;8.  @O45 ?>A;54=8E 8AA;54>20=89 ?@54?>;0305BAO, GB> 02B>=><=K5 =5@2=K5 ?@>F5AAK B0:65 <>3CB ?>425@30BLAO >?5@0=B=><C >1CA;>2;820=8N. -B><C A;C60B ?@54?8A0=8O ?> >1@0B=>9 18>;>38G5A:>9 A2O78 (biofeedback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egewie 8 L. Nusselt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llis, 1977; A. Beck, 1979], A B5E=8:>9 >1@0I5=8O A ?@>1;5<0<8 (B@5=8=3 4;O A=OB8O ?@>1;5<) 8 A ?>7=020B5;L=K<8 <5B>40<8 ?@5>4>;5=8O AB@5AA0 (?@8282:0 ?@>B82 AB@5AA0, B@5=8@>2:0 C?@02;5=8O AB@5AA><) [D. Meichenbaum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llrich de Muynck 8 R. Ullrich, 1980]; 2 @57C;LB0B5 ?>402;5==K5 ?0F85=BK @5H0NBAO =0:>=5F 2K@078BL A2>8 GC2AB20 8 65;0=8O >:@C60NI8<. #?@06=5=8O ?> D>@<8@>20=8N ?>2545=8O ?@>2>4OBAO 2 >A=>2=>< 2 2845 @>;52>9 83@K; ?@8 MB>< ?@840QBAO B0:65 7=0G5=85 >1CG5=8N <>45;8 ?>2545=8O. "@5=8@>2:0 C25@5==>AB8 2 A515 206=0 ?@8 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8E 8 =52@>B8G5A:8E =0@CH5=8OE, :>B>@K5 A2O70=K A> AB@0E0<8, =5C25@5==>ABLN 2 A515 8 A A>F80;L=>9 C3=5BQ==>ABLN. 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AA;54>20=85 MDD5:B82=>AB8 ?A8E>B5@0?52B8G5A:>3> ;5G5=8O ?>4=8<05B 5IQ 8 >A>1K5 <5B>48G5A:85 ?@>1;5<K. @8 MB>< >:07K20NBAO 206=K<8 B@8 0A?5:B0 =01;N45=89, :>B>@K5 E>BO 8 B5A=> ?5@5?;5B5=K <564C A>1>9, => >B@060NB @07=K5 AD5@K 8=B5@5A>2  ?0F85=B0, B5@0?52B0 8 >1I5AB25==>AB8. AA;54>20=85 @57C;LB0B>2 ;5G5=8O 2 >1;0AB8 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:>9 <548F8=K, :@><5 B>3>, AB>8B ?5@54 <5B>48G5A:>9 ?@>1;5<>9 CGQB0 8 >1J548=5=8O 2 8B>3>2>9 >F5=:5 >1J5:B82=KE, AC1J5:B82=KE 8 2708<>459AB2CNI8E 40==KE [W. Senf 8 . Rad, 1990]. !53>4=O C65 =54>AB0B>G=> A45;0BL 2K2>4 ?> @57C;LB0B0< 8AA;54>20=8O > B><, GB> 2 >?@545;Q==>9 3@C??5 1>;L=KE ?>A;5 >?@545;Q==>3> 2840 ;5G5=8O ?>O28;>AL C;CGH5=85 A0<>GC2AB28O 8;8 GB> ?> >F5=:5 8AA;54>20B5;O >?@545;Q==0O <5B>48:0 ;5G5=8O 2 >?@545;Q==>9 3@C??5 1>;L=KE O2;O5BAO 1>;55 MDD5:B82=>9 8;8 1>;55 M:>=><8G=>9, G5< 4@C30O. (0?@8<5@, 5A;8 2 :0G5AB25 :@8B5@8O CA?5H=>AB8 ;5G5=8O =5@2=>9 0=>@5:A88 CG8BK20BL B>;L:> ?>:070B5;L <0AAK B5;0, B> A>AB>O=85 1>;L=>9, C :>B>@>9 7=0G8B5;L=> C25;8G8;0AL <0AA0 B5;0, 1C45B @0AF5=820BLAO :0: C;CGH5=85, E>BO C =5Q ?>AB>O==K5 @2>BK, >=0 ?>B5@O;0 @01>BC, 0 87-70 7;>C?>B@51;5=8O <548:0<5=B0<8 @0AAB0;0AL A ?0@B=Q@><.) A8E>B5@0?8O 4>;6=0 8A?>;L7>20BL 2 A2>8E >F5=:0E =C;52CN 38?>B57C 0=A0 975=:0 (. 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"0:, 87CG5=85 A<5H0==>3> :>=B8=35=B0 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8E 1>;L=KE 8 =52@>B8:>2 2 >1H8@=>< <5B00=0;875 475 @01>B, >ACI5AB2;5==>< . Smith 8 A>02B. (1980), ?>:070;>, GB> ?A8E>B5@0?8O 2 F5;>< MDD5:B82=0: 80% ?>;CG02H8E ?A8E>B5@0?8N ?0F85=B>2 8<5NB 1>;LH5 H0=A>2 871028BLAO >B A2>8E A8<?B><>2, G5< =5;5G5=K5 1>;L=K5 87 :>=B@>;L=>9 3@C??K. . Grawe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eyer 8 A>02B., 1991]. -B> ?>2545=G5A:8-?>7=020B5;L=0O, ?A8E>0=0;8B8G5A:0O 8, A >?@545;Q==K<8 >D0=8G5=8O<8, @073>2>@=>-B5@0?52B8G5A:0O <5B>48:8. A=>2=CN 7040GC, :>B>@0O AB>8B B5?5@L ?5@54 ?A8E>B5@0?859, <>6=> >?@545;8BL A;54CNI8< >1@07><: C :0:8E ?0F85=B>2 8 ?@8 :0:8E =0@CH5=8OE, :0:85 ;5G51=K5 <5@>?@8OB8O C :0:8E B5@0?52B>2 8 70 :0:>5 2@5<O <>3CB 1KBL MDD5:B82=K<8? @8 MB>< 1@>A05BAO 2 3;070, GB> >A>15==> 8=B5@5ACNI85 =0A ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:85 1>;L=K5 8AA;54>20=K <5=LH5. > 8<5NBAO >?@545;Q==K5 C:070=8O =0 B>, GB> ?@8 @O45 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8E 8 A><0B8G5A:8E 701>;520=89 (=0?@8<5@, ?@8 1@>=E80;L=>9 0AB<5, =5@2=>9 0=>@5:A88, O725==>< :>;8B5 8;8 A<5H0==KE DC=:F8>=0;L=KE A8=4@><0E) ?>:070=K :><18=0F88 ?A8E>B5@0?52B8G5A:8E 8 A><0B8G5A:8E <5B>4>2 ;5G5=8O [F. Rohrmeier, 1982]. 5:>B>@K5 40==K5 8<5NB 8A:;NG8B5;L=>5 7=0G5=85: B0:, . Deter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endes de Leon 8 A>02B., 1991]. @8 :0B0<=5AB8G5A:>< 8AA;54>20=88 G5@57 4,5 3>40 >:070;>AL, GB> C 1>;L=KE, ?>;CG02H8E ?A8E>B5@0?8N, ?>2B>@=K5 8=D0@:BK 2AB@5G0;8AL =0 44% @565, G5< 2 :>=B@>;L=>9 3@C??5 (@8A. 7) [. Friedman 8 A>02B., 1984, 1986]. "0:65 2?5G0B;ONB 40==K5 D. Spiegel 8 A>02B. (1989), :>B>@K5 2 B5G5=85 3>40 ?@>2>48;8 ?A8E>B5@0?8N C 1>;L=KE A <5B0AB078@CNI8< @0:>< <>;>G=>9 65;57K A F5;LN C;CGH5=8O :0G5AB20 8E 687=8. 2B>@>2 ?>@078; MDD5:B ?@>4;5=8O 687=8: 2 ?A8E>B5@0?52B8G5A:>9 3@C??5 ?> A@02=5=8N A :>=B@>;L=>9 4;8B5;L=>ABL 687=8 2 A@54=5< C25;8G8;0AL A 18 4> 36 <5A (@8A. 8). 0==KE > B><, =0A:>;L:> A>?>AB028<K @57C;LB0BK ;5G5=8O ?@8 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8E =52@>B8G5A:8E 701>;520=8OE, 4> A8E ?>@ =5B. K 8AA;54>20;8 :0B0<=5AB8G5A:8 A<5H0==K9 :>=B8=35=B 1>;L=KE A =52@>B8G5A:8<8, DC=:F8>=0;L=K<8 8 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8<8 @0AAB@>9AB20<8, ?>;CG02H8<8 :><18=8@>20==>5 (AB0F8>=0@=> 8 0<1C;0B>@=>) ?A8E>B5@0?52B8G5A:>5 ;5G5=85 2 B5G5=85 =5 <5=55 1,5 ;5B [W. Brautigam 8 A>02B., 1980]. @8 ?5@2>< >?@545;5=88 @57C;LB0B>2 =5?>A@54AB25==> ?>A;5 ;5G5=8O A@02=5=85 ?0F85=B>2 A ?@58<CI5AB25==> ?A8E8G5A:>9 8;8 A><0B8G5A:>9 A8<?B><0B8:>9 ?> 2A5< >F5=:0< =5 2KO28;> ACI5AB25==KE @07;8G89: :2>BK CA?5E0 1K;8 >G5=L AE>4=K :0: ?> <=5=8N B5@0?52B>2, B0: 8 ?> >F5=:5 A0<8E ?0F85=B>2 [W. Senf, 1987]. ">, GB> ?0F85=BK A A><0B8G5A:8<8 60;>10<8 @565 >F5=820NB A2>5 A>AB>O=85 2 ?;0=5 87<5=5=8O >1I59 A8<?B><0B8:8 :0: C;CGH5=85, 0 2 >B=>H5=88 A><0B8G5A:8E 60;>1 G0I5 2>>1I5 =5 284OB =8:0:>3> @57C;LB0B0, :;8=8G5A:8 >1JOA=8<>, 5A;8 8<5BL 2 284C 1>;L=KE A >B=>A8B5;L=> BO6Q;K<8 A><0B8G5A:8<8 AB@040=8O<8. > 5A;8 A>?>AB028BL @57C;LB0BK ;5G5=8O 1>;L=KE A A><0B>?A8E8G5A:8<8 701>;520=8O<8 2 C7:>< A<KA;5 A;>20 (=0?@8<5@, 1>;L=KE 1@>=E80;L=>9 0AB<>9, :>;8B0<8, =59@>45@<8B0<8, ?5B8G5A:8<8 O720<8 8 4@.) A B0:>2K<8 C 1>;L=KE A =52@>70<8 8;8 DC=:F8>=0;L=>-?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8<8 701>;520=8O<8, B> >1A;54>20=85, ?@>254Q==>5 G5@57 2 3>40 ?>A;5 >:>=G0=8O ;5G5=8O, ?>:070;> ?@5420@8B5;L=> (8AA;54>20=85 5IQ =5 1K;> 70:>=G5=>) B>;L:> >B=>A8B5;L=> =51>;LH85 @07;8G8O (B01;. 6).  8A. 7. 57C;LB0BK ;5G5=8O 1>;L=KE A ?>2B>@=K<8 8=D0@:B0<8 <8>:0@40 2 ?A8E>B5@0?52B8G5A:>9 3@C??5 (592 G5;>25:0  ") ?> A@02=5=8N A :>=B@>;5< (270 1>;L=KE, =5 ?>;CG02H8E ?A8E>B5@0?8N 8 B>;L:> >1A;54>20==KE :0@48>;>38G5A:8  ) [. Friedman 8 A>02B., 1986]. 8A. 8. @5<O 4>6820=8O ?@8 <5B0AB078@CNI5< @0:5 <>;>G=>9 65;57K ?>A;5 3@C??>2>9 ?A8E>B5@0?88 2 B5G5=85 3>40 [D. Spiegel 8 A>02B., 1989]."01;8F0 6 57C;LB0BK B5@0?88 ?>A;5 >:>=G0=8O ;5G5=8O C 140 ?0F85=B>2 A =0;8G85< (1) 8;8 >BACBAB285< (2) A><0B8G5A:>9 A8<?B><0B8:8 G5=L E>@>H85/ E>@>H85 @57C;LB0BK#4>2;5B2>@8B5;L=K5 @57C;LB0BK57 C;CGH5=8O#EC4H5=85 A>AB>O=8O12121212=5=85 B5@0?52B0A=>2=>9 A8<?B>< :0: 3;02=0O F5;L 43%52%41%39%15%1% 2%@C385 8=48284C0;L=K5 B5@0?52B8G5A:85 F5;8 43%49%41%41%16%8% 2%=5=85 1>;L=>3>#4>2;5B2>@5==>ABL 58%63%5%7%13%18%21%15%;8=8G5A:85 40==K5 A2845B5;LAB2CNB > B><, GB> ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:85 1>;L=K5, 4065 =0E>4OI85AO =0 1>;55 =87:>< C@>2=5 2 A>F80;L=>9 AD5@5 8 2 >1@07>20=88, 4>AB830NB ;CGH8E @57C;LB0B>2, G5< 1>;L=K5 A =52@>70<8, 4;O ;5G5=8O :>B>@KE ?@8<5=O;8AL <>48D8F8@>20==K5 A?5F80;L=> 4;O =8E ?A8E>B5@0?52B8G5A:85 <5B>48:8. >=:@5B=K5 @57C;LB0BK ;5G5=8O >?8A0=K 2> 2B>@>9 G0AB8 :=838 2 @0<:0E >B45;L=KE =>7>;>38G5A:8E D>@<. II. 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mkraut 8 A>02B., 1974]. >?KB:8 B>G=55 >?@545;8BL 2;8O=85 ?A8E8G5A:8E =03@C7>:, AB@5AA>2 8 M<>F89 =0 8<<C==CN A8AB5<C ?@54?@8=8<0NBAO 1>;55 10 ;5B. AA;54>20=8O ?@8=04;560B : 8=B5@5A=59H59 >1;0AB8 ?A8E>18>;>388 [. Werner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flanz, 1967]. 5@>OB=>, ;CGH5 3>2>@8BL > <0@38=0;L=KE A>F80;L=KE ?>78F8OE 8 > ;N4OE, :>B>@KE 2K2>4OB 87 AB@>O A:>@55 A>F80;L=K5 :>=D;8:BK, ?@8GQ< 8AA;54>20B5;L C156405BAO, GB> ?@8 1>;LH>< G8A;5 A;CG052 =5 8A:;NG05BAO 2>7<>6=>ABL 8A?>;L7>20=8O A;01KE <5AB A>F80;L=>9 A8AB5<K 8 7;>C?>B@51;5=8O MB8< [. Schafer 8 . Blohmke, 1978].  !"  ! 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chmidt 8 A>02B., 1985; D. Goldmeier 8 A>02B., 1986; J. Levenson 8 A>02B., 1987; . Kemeny 8 A>02B., 1989; . Rand 8 A>02B., 1990|. ><?;5:A=>ABL, 48DD5@5=F8@>20==>ABL 8 A;>6=>ABL A>2@5<5==KE ?A8E>=59@>8<<C=>;>38G5A:8E 8AA;54>20=89 <>6=> ?@>45<>=AB@8@>20BL =0 ?@8<5@5 @01>BK . Kemeny 8 A>02B. (1989). 2B>@K =0 ?@>BO65=88 =5A:>;L:8E <5AOF52 87CG0;8 C 36 ?0F85=B>2 A 35=8B0GL=K< 35@?5A>< 8<52H89AO (8;8 >68405<K9) C =8E AB@5AA, =0AB@>5=85, A>AB>O=85 74>@>2LO, 0 B0:65, 2 :0G5AB25 8<<C=>;>38G5A:>3> ?0@0<5B@0, "4- (E5;?5@K) 8 "8- (AC?@5AA>@K) :;5B:8. 57C;LB0BK: 1) C ?0F85=B>2 A 2KA>:8<8 ?>:070B5;O<8 AB@5AA0 >1=0@C65=> <5=LH55 :>;8G5AB2> "4- 8 "8-:;5B>:; 2) C ?0F85=B>2 A 2KA>:8<8 ?>:070B5;O<8 B@52>6=>9 45?@5AA88 8;8 03@5AA82=>AB8 2KO2;5=> C<5=LH5=85 :>;8G5AB20 "8-:;5B>:; 3) C ?0F85=B>2 A 2KA>:8<8 ?>:070B5;O<8 45?@5AA88 >B<5G5=0 ?>2KH5==0O A:;>==>ABL : @5F84820< 35=8B0;L=>3> 35@?5A0. >A;54=89 D0:B>@ CAB0=>2;5= B0:65 ?@8 BI0B5;L=>< 87CG5=88 '-8=D8F8@>20==KE ;N459, C :>B>@KE 2K@065==>ABL 45?@5AA82=>5"! >?@545;O5B B5G5=85 701>;520=8O [. Kemeny 8 A>02B., 1989; . Weiner, 1989]. @>2>F8@CNI85 D0:B>@K <=>3>>1@07=K 8 <>3CB 1KBL :0: M:7>35==K<8 (A>;=5G=>5 8;8 C;LB@0D8>;5B>2>5 >1;CG5=85, A>?CBAB2CNI85 8=D5:F8>==K5 701>;520=8O, M:70<5=0F8>==K5 =03@C7:8, >48=>G5AB2>), B0: 8 M=4>35==K<8 (2=CB@5==85 :>=D;8:BK). 0F85=B:0, D878G5A:8 :@5?:0O 687=5@04>AB=0O 65=I8=0 33 ;5B, <=>3> ;5B ;5G8BAO ?> ?>2>4C <=>65AB20 A><0B8G5A:8E 60;>1 (70B@C4=Q==>5 4KE0=85, BO65ABL 2 682>B5, B0E8:0@48O, 1>;L 2 @07=KE G0ABOE B5;0) C 2@0G59 >1I59 ?@0:B8:8 8 A?5F80;8AB>2. @8 >1A;54>20=88 2 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:>9 :;8=8:5 CAB0=>2;5=>, GB> 5Q 60;>1K =0E>4OBAO 2 ?@O<>9 7028A8<>AB8 8 2=CB@5==59 A2O78 A =5 C4>2;5B2>@ONI59 5Q A5<59=>9 A8BC0F859. =0 @>48;0AL 2 <0;5=L:>< 3>@>45 ?5@2K< @51Q=:>< 2 A5<L5 B>@3>2F0, 1K;0 ?@82O70=0 : >BFC, 2K@>A;0 2 0B<>AD5@5 B>@3>2>9 687=8 8 2 18 ;5B 4>;6=0 1K;0 2K9B8 70<C6 70 @01>G53> ?@8<5@=> 5Q 2>7@0AB0, ?>A:>;L:C 7015@5<5=5;0. 0F85=B:0 2A5 5IQ =0E>48BAO ?>4 2;8O=85< A2>8E 2;0AB=KE @>48B5;59, @01>B05B 2 A2>1>4=>5 2@5<O ?> 4><C, =5 ?>;CG0O 70 MB> =8:0:>9 ?;0BK. !2>53> <C60 >=0 AG8B05B A;01K< 8 A:CG=K<.  ?@>F5AA5 3@C??>2>9 B5@0?88 C40;>AL ?5@5@01>B0BL 8 >BG0AB8 A<O3G8BL 5Q :>=D;8:B <564C A>1AB25==K<8 65;0=8O<8 8 A>25ABLN, 2>?;>I5=85< :>B>@>3> 2=0G0;5 2KABC?0; >B5F, 0 70B5< 8 B5@0?52B. 5;> 2 B><, GB> >=0 70=>2> ?5@56820;0 A2>N 4528GLN ?@82O70==>ABL : >1>602H5<C 5Q, => B5?5@L 65=0B><C <C6G8=5 87 5Q @>4=>3> 3>@>40. 5 ?>AB0282 2 8725AB=>ABL =8 @>48B5;59, =8 <C60, >=0 2AB@5B8;0AL A =8< >4=064K 8 ?>4 53> =068<>< A>3;0A8;0AL ?>5E0BL A =8< 2 :>=F5 =545;8 2 ?CB5H5AB285 A =>GQ2:>9 2 >B5;5. > 2@5<O .3@C??>2>9 B5@0?88 C =5Q 2>7=8:;> @57:>5 2>71C645=85 A >B:07>< >B :>=B0:B0 A 4@C38<8 ?0F85=B0<8. 0 A;54CNI5< A50=A5 >=0 @0AA:070;0 > A2>Q< 70?;0=8@>20==><, => =5 A>25@HQ==>< ;>6=>< H035.  BC AC11>BC =0 5Q ?>;>2KE 3C10E ?>O28;8AL <=>3>G8A;5==K5 ?>:@0A=5=8O 8 ?C7K@L:8, :>B>@K5 =5 ?>72>;8;8 2ABC?8BL 2 8=B8<=CN A2O7L, :>B>@>9 >=0 B0: E>B5;0, => 2 B> 65 2@5<O >?0A0;0AL.  B8?8G=>9 :>=D;8:B=>9 A8BC0F88 G0AB> >B<5G0NBAO GC2AB2> 28=K, :>B>@>5 2>7=8:05B 87-70 :>=D;8:B0 2 A5:AC0;L=>9 AD5@5, 8 AB@0E 703@O7=5=8O, => <>3CB 1KBL 8 :>=D;8:BK 8=>3> @>40. N48, A:;>==K5 : @5F84820< ?@>AB>3> 35@?5A0, G0AB> 8<5NB 8 4@C385 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:85 8;8 =52@>B8G5A:85 A8=4@><K. "5@0?8O. 0@O4C A <548:0<5=B>7=>9 B5@0?859, :>B>@0O =5 <>65B ?@825AB8 : 2K74>@>2;5=8N, :065BAO >?@0240==K< 8 =5>1E>48<K< ?>A@54AB2>< ?A8E>B5@0?88 ?>445@6820BL ?0F85=B>2 A 8E ?A8E>A>F80;L=K<8 ?@>1;5<0<8 (=0?@8<5@, CAB@0=8BL >ICI5=85, GB> >= ?@>:06Q==K9, 8 4@C385 45?@5AA82=K5 D>@<K ?5@5@01>B:8). A>15==> E>@>H85 @57C;LB0BK >B<5G0NBAO ?@8 >3@0=8G5==>9 2> 2@5<5=8 >@85=B8@>20==>9 =0 1>;57=L 3@C??>2>9 ?A8E>B5@0?88: =5 B>;L:> 4>AB830;>AL >A;01;5=85 45?@5AA82=>AB8 [S. Drob 8 . Bernard, 1986], => 8 : <><5=BC ?>2B>@=>3> >A;01;5=8O >1=0@C6820;>AL C48282H55 4065 02B>@>2 >A;01;5=85 B5=45=F88 : @5F84820< 35=8B0;L=>3> 35@?5A0 [McLarnon 8 Kaloupek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eizsacker (1946) 8 R. Bilz (1936) ?@825;8 <=>65AB2> =01;N45=89, A2845B5;LAB2CNI8E > B><, GB> >AB@> 2>7=8:0NI85 ?@8ABC?K 0=38=K <>3CB 1KBL A2O70=K A :@878A=K<8 >1>AB@5=8O<8 8 ?>B@OA5=8O<8 35=5@0B82=>9 AD5@K, B.5. G0AB> A 0<1820;5=B=K<8 A5:AC0;L=K<8 65;0=8O<8 ($@84@8E 8FH5: 0<Q@7=5B ;8 65=I8=0, :>B>@0O 7=05B, GB> >=0 E>@>H> >45B0? 5B, 4065 5A;8 =0 =59 ?>GB8 =8G53> =5B).  B><, GB> 1>;57=L :0: 2=570?=K9 :@8B8G5A:89 ?@>@K2 <>65B 1KBL =5 B>;L:> ?>@065=85<, => 8 ?@>O2;5=85< 87<5=5=8O, =>2>9 A8BC0F88, A2845B5;LAB2C5B 8<5==> 0=38=0. 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"# # "C15@:C;Q7  8=D5:F8>==>5 701>;520=85, 2>7=8:0NI55 2A;54AB285 ?>?040=8O 2 >@30=87< 8 0:B82870F88 2>71C48B5;O BC15@:C;Q70 (<8:>10' B5@88 BC15@:C;Q70).  85% A;CG052 701>;520=85 ?>@0605B ;Q3:85. @8 MB>< =0@O4C A 2>71C48B5;5< 2 ?0B>35=575 701>;520=8O 83@05B @>;L @O4 18>;>38G5A:8E D0:B>@>2, 2 B>< G8A;5 >1I0O @578AB5=B=>ABL, 2>7@0AB, =0A;54AB25==>ABL, ?A8E8G5A:85 D0:B>@K, B0: GB> ;81> 2A:>@5 ?@>8AE>48B ?>402;5=85 ?5@28G=>9 8=D5:F88, ;81> 8=D8F8@>20=85 <8:>10:B5@8O<8 BC15@:C;Q70 ?@82>48B : @0728B8N 1>;57=8. !B0@K5 >G038 ?5@28G=>3> 701>;520=8O G5@57 <=>3> ;5B ;0B5=B=>3> A>AB>O=8O <>3CB 0:B82878@>20BLAO, 8 ?>A;5 AB0488 @0==53> 8=D8;LB@0B0 @0728205BAO E@>=8G5A:89 BC15@:C;Q7.  @0728B88 1>;57=8 83@0NB @>;L 3>@<>=0;L=K5 (?C15@B0B, 15@5<5==>ABL), ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:85 :>=AB5;;OF88 8 2>7@0AB=>5 A=865=85 B>;5@0=B=>AB8. > <=5=8N <=>38E DB8780B@>2 8 ?A8E>A><0B8:>2, ;8G=>ABL, A>F80;L=K5 D0:B>@K 8 687=5==0O A8BC0F8O 8<5NB 7=0G5=85 :0: 4;O @0728B8O ?5@28G=>3> 701>;520=8O, B0: 8 4;O 40;L=59H53> B5G5=8O BC15@:C;Q70. -?845<8>;>38O. 0: 8 2> 2A5E M:>=><8G5A:8 @0728BKE AB@0=0E, 2 $  ?>:070B5;8 701>;5205<>AB8 2A5<8 D>@<0<8 BC15@:C;Q70 =5C:;>==> A=860NBAO. -B>B ?@>F5AA, @0A?@>AB@0=ONI89AO =0 2A5 M:>=><8G5A:8 @0728BK5 AB@0=K <8@0, ?>4B25@6405BAO A=865=85< C@>2=O A<5@B=>AB8 2 2 @070 70 ?>A;54=85 120 ;5B. -B> A=865=85 =0G0;>AL 5I5 4> =0ABC?;5=8O M@K 0=B818>B8:>2 8 A2O70=> A C;CGH5=85< >1I53> M:>=><8G5A:>3> ?>;>65=8O, 68;8I=KE CA;>289, A5<59=>9 0B<>AD5@K, C<5=LH5=85< ?A8E>A>F80;L=KE =03@C7>: [F. Burnet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A=>2845=8OE 5<C ?@54AB02;O5BAO, GB> >= A2O70= =52848<>9 ?C?>28=>9 A <0B5@LN 8 GB> 5Q A<5@BL <>65B ?@825AB8 8 : 53> A<5@B8. K;0 ;8 MB> <8AB8G5A:0O A2O7L A <0B5@LN, :>B>@0O 4>;6=0 1K;0 ?@825AB8 : 53> A<5@B8, 8;8 MB> 1K; AB@0E >AB0BLAO 2 1>@L15 70 687=L 2 >48=>G5AB25, 157 =04Q6=>9, A?>A>1=>9 ?><>GL <0B5@8? ;8 MB> 1K;> GC2AB2> 28=K 87-70 65;0=8O 2 D0=B078OE 2845BL <0BL C<5@H59, :0: 1K 2 A>>B25BAB288 A 4@52=8< 70:>=>< 2>7<5748O  :@>2L 70 :@>2L, :>340 70 A>25@H5=85 C189AB20 G5;>25:0 8;8 682>B=>3> 8;8 65;0=85 A45;0BL MB> =04> @0A?;0G820BLAO A>1AB25==>9 :@>2LN? 0:>5 B>;:>20=85 745AL ?@54?>GB8B5;L=55,284=> 87 0<1820;5=B=>3> 65;0=8O A<5@B8 8 A2O70==>3> A =8< GC2AB20 28=K, ?@82>4OI8E : A>AB>O=8N AB@0E0, ?5@5@010BK205<>3> 70B5< 2 A8<?B><0B8:C 2 2845 A5@4F5185=8O 8 2 :>=F5 :>=F>2 AB@0E0 >AB0=>2:8 A5@4F0 [W. Brautigam, 1956]. <5NI0OAO A:;>==>ABL : A8<18>B8G5A:8< >B=>H5=8O<, 45?@5AA82-=>-A8<18>B8G5A:85 D0=B0788 =0 B5<C A;8O=8O C 1>;L=KE A :0@48>=52@>-7>< 2K7K20NB 2=5H=85 8 2=CB@5==85 B@C4=>AB8 ?@8 @07@K25 B5A=KE A2O759 A <0B5@LN 8 >BF><. "0: 65 BO65;> <>65B 2>A?@8=8<0BLAO A<5@BL >:@C60NI8E 8;8 4065 B>;L:> A>>1I5=85 > A<5@B8, :>B>@>5 ?0F85=BK ?5@56820NB B0:, :0: 5A;8 1K MB> 1K;0 8E A>1AB25==0O AC4L10. !@548 281 1>;L=KE A :0@48>D>1859 8 :0@48>=52@>7><, :>B>@K5 A 1979 ?> 1983 3. =01;N40;8AL 2 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:>9 :;8=8:5 5945;L15@3A:>3> C=825@A8B5B0, 45?@5AA82=0O =52@>B8G5A:0O AB@C:BC@0 1K;0 =081>;55 G0AB>9 8 >B<5G0;0AL 2 80% A;CG052 (2 >1I5< :>=B8=35=B5 MB0 AB@C:BC@0 A>AB02;O;0 54%). @8G8=K. 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Beckmann, 1973]. # ?>402;ONI53> 1>;LH8=AB20 1>;L=KE <>6=> =01;N40BL >1KG=CN 7028A8<>ABL, =0@0AB0NI55 A>:@0I5=85 687=5==KE A2O759, H065=85 A51O, E0@0:B5@=CN 4;O D>189 2>>1I5 ?>78F8N CE>40 >B B@C4=>AB59. 5:>B>@K5 ?@5:@0I0NB @01>B0BL, =5 2 A>AB>O=88 68BL A0<>AB>OB5;L=>, 157 ?>445@6:8 2@0G0 8 1;87:8E. =8 871530NB A5:AC0;L=KE :>=B0:B>2, 70=OB89 A?>@B>< 8 2 :>=F5 :>=F>2 ;N1KE D878G5A:8E CA8;89, :>B>@K5 A2O70=K A CG0I5=85< A5@4F5185=8O. =>385 ?>;=>ABLN D8:A8@>20=K =0 =01;N45=8OE 70 A2>59 A5@45G=>9 45OB5;L=>ABLN, G8B0NB 2AN >B=>AOICNAO : MB><C ;8B5@0BC@C, E>4OB >B 2@0G0 : 2@0GC, @0A?@>AB@0=ONB A2>8 A0<>=01;N45=8O =0 4@C385 G0AB8 B5;0. !G8B05BAO, GB> 8?>E>=4@8: 2A5340 =0945B ?@8G8=C 87CG0BL, A51O 8 4065 74>@>2K9 G5;>25: 8<55B 4>AB0B>G=> <0B5@80;0 4;O 8?>E>=4@8G5A:>9 ?5@5@01>B:8 >ICI5=89 2 A2>Q< >@30=87<5. > 8<5==> ?@8 :0@48>=52@>B8G5A:>< AB@0E5 83@05B 1>;LHCN @>;L ?A8E>D878>;>38G5A:89 ?>@>G=K9 :@C3: 2A;54AB285 AB@0E0 ?@>8AE>48B 2K1@>A 04@5=0;8=0 A CG0I5=85< A5@4F5185=8O 8 ?>2KH5=85< . "5< A0<K< C<5=LH05BAO ?>;57=K9 MDD5:B @01>BK A5@4F0, =0ABC?05B 38?>:A8O, :>B>@0O 2 A2>N >G5@54L 2K7K205B AB@0E 8 A5@45G=K5 A5=A0F88. "@52>6=>5 15A?>:>9AB2> ?@82>48B : B0E8:0@488 8 ?>2KH5==>9 2>71C48<>AB8, CA8;820NI59 B@52>6=>5 15A?>:>9AB2> A ?@>5:F859 =0 A5@4F5. !B@0E <>65B 2>7=8:=CBL 87-70 A5@4F0, :>340 C25;8G5=85 G0AB>BK A5@45G=KE A>:@0I5=89 8 A5@45G=KE A5=A0F89 A=>20 2K7K205B AB@0E. "8? ?@>AB>9 7028A8<>AB8, :0: 8 B8? G@57<5@=>9 70I8BK 8 >B@8F0=8O, <>6=> >1=0@C68BL A ?><>ILN ?A8E>;>38G5A:8E B5AB>2. . Richter 8 D. Beckmann (1973) >?8A0;8 53> :0: B8?K  8  2 ?@>D8;OE MMPI. 07;8G85 <564C B8?0<8 >1=0@C68205BAO 2 H:0;5 D MB>3> B5AB0 :0: 2K@065=85 45?@5AA82=KE A8<?B><>2, >G5=L E0@0:B5@=KE 4;O B8?0 , B>340 :0: C B8?0  >=8 >AB0NBAO A:@KBK<8 70 AGQB 38?5@:><?5=A0F88. ;O ?0F85=B>2 A 38?5@:><?5=A0F859 8 2K@065==>9 70I8B>9 E0@0:B5@=> ?KB0BLAO ?>1>@>BL A2>N A;01>ABL 0:B82=>ABLN 8 D878G5A:8<8 CA8;8O<8. =8 =5 B5@?OB, :>340 <548:0<5=B>7=>5 8;8 4@C3>5 ;5G5=85, =0?@02;5==>5 =0 @0AA;01;5=85 8 ?0AA82=>ABL, 2K7K205B C =8E A;01>ABL, GB> 8<55B 7=0G5=85 ?@8 2K1>@5 AB@0B5388 ;5G5=8O. 8DD5@5=F80;L=K9 4803=>7.  >AB@>< A>AB>O=88 206=55 2A53> >B;8G0BL A8<?0B8:>-2070;L=K9 ?@8ABC? >B 8=D0@:B0 <8>:0@40. ?@545;ONI8< O2;O5BAO A8=4@>< 60;>1, B0: :0: A8<?0B8:>-B>=8G5A:89 ?@8ABC?, >A>15==> C 1>;55 <>;>4KE ;N459, 1>;LH5 >?@545;O5BAO AB@0E><, 0 =5 1>;O<8, A>?@>2>640NI8<8AO GC2AB2>< 3815;8 ?@8 8=D0@:B5 <8>:0@40. G5=L CG0IQ==K9 ?C;LA, ?>2KH5==>5  A2845B5;LAB2CNB 2 ?>;L7C A8<-?0B8:>-2070;L=>3> ?@8ABC?0. 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hristian, 1990], ?>:07K20NB O2=> <5=LH55 G8A;> >@30=8G5A:8E 701>;520=89 A5@4F0, G5< <>6=> 1K;> 1K >6840BL. @>3=>7 C =5;5G5=KE 1>;L=KE :0: 2 >B=>H5=88 A8<?B><0B8:8, B0: 8 2 ?;0=5 687=5==>3> @0728B8O =51;03>?@8OB5=. 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Grace 8 D. Graham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lexander 8 A>02B. (1968), F5=B@0;L=K< ?C=:B>< ?A8E>48=0<8:8 ?0F85=B0 A MAA5=F80;L=>9 38?5@B5=7859 O2;O5BAO ?>AB>O==0O 1>@L10 A =0@0AB0NI8< 2@06451=>-03@5AA82=K< GC2AB2><.  B> 65 2@5<O ACI5AB2CNB B@C4=>AB8 A0<>CB25@645=8O. 0F85=BK 1>OBAO ?>B5@OBL 1;03>A:;>==>ABL 4@C38E ;N459 8 ?>MB><C :>=B@>;8@CNB ?@>O2;5=8O A2>59 2@06451=>AB8.  45BAB25 >=8 >1KG=> A:;>==K : ?@8ABC?0< O@>AB8 8 03@5AA88. 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A ?>;=K< >A=>20=85< AG8B05BAO @53C;8@C5<K< ?>:070B5;5<. 3> :>=AB0=B=>ABL :>=B@>;8@CNB ?CBQ< 87<5@5=8O >B:;>=5=89 >B =>@<0;L=KE ?>:070B5;59. &5=B@0;L=0O =5@2=0O A8AB5<0 459AB2C5B :0: @53C;OB>@, ?>A:>;L:C ?@8 @53C;OF88  A ?><>ILN A?5F80;L=KE <5E0=87<>2 >=> <5=O5BAO B0:8< >1@07><, GB> A@54=85 25;8G8=K 53> >AB0NBAO =587<5==K<8. @8 ?>2KH5==><  A8AB5<0 @53C;OF88  C65 =5 2 A>AB>O=88 ?>=878BL ?0B>;>38G5A:8 ?>2KH5==>5  A ?><>ILN >ACI5AB2;O5<>9 2 =>@<5 DC=:F88 @53C;OF88. !> 2@5<5=5< @53C;OF8>==0O A8AB5<0 C 38?5@B>=8:>2 ?5@5AB@08205BAO, GB> >1CA;>2;5=> 8=4CF8@>20==K<8 38?5@B>=8G5A:8<8 @50:F8O<8. #@>25=L 2>71C48<>AB8 10@>@5F5?B>@>2 ?>2KH05BAO. 4=>2@5<5==> 8 =57028A8<> >B MB>3> @072820NBAO 5IQ 2 B5G5=85 4>;3>3> 2@5<5=8 >1@0B8<K5 87<5=5=8O 2 0@B5@8>;0E, 2 A2O78 A G5< ?>AB5?5==> ?>2KH05BAO C@>25=L  8 ?@>8AE>48B D878>;>38G5A:>5 ?@5A-A>@=>5 2>71C645=85 A> 2AQ 1>;LH8< ?>4JQ<><  [J. McCubbin 8 A>02B.; . Folkow, 1968]. 5@>OB=>, >A=>2=CN @>;L 83@0NB 87<5=5=8O 2 A8AB5<5 0@B5@8>;. !8BC0F8>==>5 ?>2KH5=85  ?@8 53> G0AB>< ?>2B>@5=88 2A:>@5 ?@82>48B : AB@C:BC@=K< 87<5=5=8O< (38?5@B@>D8O 3;04:>9 <CA:C;0BC@K A@54=59 >1>;>G:8 0@B5@89), ?@>8AE>48B AC65=85 ?@>A25B0 A>AC40 8 B5< A0<K< ?>2KH5=85 A>?@>B82;O5<>AB8, @57C;LB0B>< G53> O2;O5BAO ?>@>G=K9 :@C3 A CAB>9G82>9 38?5@B5=7859 [. Folkow 8 A>02B., 1973; . Folkow, 1975; . Weiner, 1977].  @0<:0E A;>6=>9 A8AB5<K @53C;OF88 , =5A><=5==>, 2>7<>6=K @07;8G=K5 20@80=BK ?0B>35=570 MAA5=F80;L=>9 38?5@B5=788. -B> 2K7K205B A><=5=85 2 >B=>H5=88 2>7<>6=>AB8 >1>1I5=8O >?8A0==KE ?A8E>;>38G5A:8E <5E0=87<>2 @0728B8O 1>;57=8. %>BO 2 @0<:0E >B45;L=>9 ?>43@C??K 8 ?@5645 2A53> 2 >1I5< B5G5=88 MAA5=F80;L=>9 38?5@B>=88 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:85 2;8O=8O 8 >?8AK20NBAO >1>A=>20==> 8 48DD5@5=F8@>20==>, 2AQ 65 8<5NBAO 8 B0:85 20@80=BK B5G5=8O, ?@8 :>B>@KE ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:85 2;8O=8O =5 83@0NB @>;8 [. Weiner, 1977]. 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A8E>48=0<8:0 708<>>B=>H5=89 @0G0 8 >;L=>3> 0=8D5AB=K5 G5@BK ;8G=>AB8 1>;L=>3> A 0@B5@80;L=>9 38?5@B>=859, 53> B@C4>;N185 8 C?>@O4>G5==>5 ?>2545=85, :>=B0:B=>ABL, 0::C@0B=>ABL 8 4>1@>A>25AB=>ABL 8<?>=8@CNB, 45;0NB 53>, :070;>AL 1K, ?@8OB=K<, CABC?G82K< ?0F85=B><. 4=0:> A;54C5B ?><=8BL, GB> 38?5@B>=8: 2 1>;LH8=AB25 A;CG052 G0AB8 =5 25@10;87C5B A2>N 03@5AA82=>ABL, G5AB>;N185 8 AB@5<;5=85 : A>?5@=8G5AB2C, :>B>@K5 G0AB> >AB0NBAO ;0B5=B=K<8. -B> <>6=> ?>GC2AB2>20BL, 5A;8 ?KB0BLAO >:07K20BL 4;8B5;L=>5 2;8O=85 =0 >1@07 687=8 1>;L=>3>. 3> <0;0O ?>40B;82>ABL ?@8 =5>1E>48<>9 4;8B5;L=>9 B5@0?52B8G5A:>9 ?@>3@0<<5, 2 ?@>F5AA5 :>B>@>9 ?0F85=B >1KG=> =5 <>65B @50;87>20BL A2>8 ?>B@51=>AB8 8 4065 =5 <>65B 2K@078BL A2>8 AC645=8O 8 >B=>H5=85, ?@>B82>@5G0I85 B5@0?52B8G5A:>9 ?@>3@0<<5, G0AB> >A;>6=O5B >B=>H5=8O 2@0G0 8 1>;L=>3>.  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A8E>B5@0?8O :0: A?5F80;878@>20==K9 <5B>4 1>;LH59 G0ABLN =5 ?@8<5=O5BAO.  @0A?>@O65=88 2@0G0 8<55BAO 48DD5@5=F8@>20==0O ABC?5=G0B0O AE5<0 ;5G5=8O MDD5:B82=K<8 A@54AB20<8. 5H0NI8<8 4;O 4;8B5;L=>3> B5@0?52B8G5A:>3> CA?5E0 O2;ONBAO @53C;O@=K9 :>=B@>;L 70 , 485B0, 154=0O 68@0<8 8 1>30B0O :0;85<, =0?@8<5@ 2535B0@80=A:0O, C<5=LH5=85 <0AAK B5;0 C BCG=KE 1>;L=KE, >3@0=8G5=85 2 @0F8>=5 A>;8 8 ?@028;L=K9 @568< A 42830B5;L=>9 0:B82=>ABLN 8 ?>;=>F5==K< =>G=K< A=><. ! ?><>ILN @53C;O@=KE C?@06=5=89 ?> A=OB8N =0?@O65=8O (0CB>35==0O B@5=8@>2:0, DC=:F8>=0;L=>5 @0AA;01;5=85, 9>30) <>6=> 4>18BLAO 2@5<5==>3> 8;8 AB>9:>3> A=865=8O  =0 10 15 << @B.AB. ;02=>5 ?@8 MB><  5A;8 C40ABAO, ?>2;8OBL =0 25AL AB8;L 687=8 1>;L=>3>, GB> 2>2A5 =5 B0: ;53:> >ACI5AB28BL. 8?5@B>=8:8  MB> ?0F85=BK A ?;>E>9 ?>40B;82>ABLN. ;O 2708<>>B=>H5=89 2@0G0 8 1>;L=>3> 206=> 2>2@5<O 70<5B8BL, GB> ?0F85=B A:;>=5= ?>402;OBL A>1AB25==K5 :@8B8G5A:85 ?>B@51=>AB8 8 2KO2;OBL 8E ;8HL :>A25==>, =0?@8<5@ 2 D>@<5 =5<>B828@>20==>3> ?@5@K20=8O ;5G5=8O. @8 87CG5=88 A>B@C4=8G5AB20 A 38?5@B>=8:0<8 2 ?;0=5 ?@8Q<0 8<8 <548:0<5=B>2 >:07K205BAO, GB> ?0F85=BK :;8=8:8 59-45;L15@3A:>3> C=825@A8B5B0 2 81% A;CG052 (>A=>2=>9 8 A>?CBAB2CNI89 4803=>7 MAA5=F80;L=>9 38?5@B5=788) O2;ONBAO =5=04Q6=K<8 [Gundert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adwig, 1987], ?@82>4OI8E : B><C, GB> ?>O2;5=85 =>F8F5?B82=>3> AB8<C;0 2>2A5 =5 >7=0G05B, GB> 2 0=0;>38G=>9 A8BC0F88 @57C;LB0B>< 1C45B ?5@56820=85 AC1J5:B>< 1>;8. 1CA;>2;5==0O 8H5<859 =>F8H?F8O, :0: 8 2A5 4@C385 284K 2>A?@8OB8O G5;>25:0, ?>425@65=0 @07=>>1@07=K< <>4C;OF8O<. !5@45G=0O 1>;L >1=0@C68205B C4828B5;L=CN 20@8015;L=>ABL 2 ?;0=5 ;>:0;870F88, 8=B5=A82=>AB8 8 :0G5AB20. (:0;0 1>;8 2:;NG05B :0: =5@57:> 2K@065==>5 GC2AB2> 402;5=8O 70 3@C48=>9, B0: 8 M:78AB5=F80;L=> C=8GB>60NICN 1>;L.  MB><C A;54C5B 4>1028BL, GB> ;8HL 20% 2A5E 8H5<8G5A:8E M?87>4>2 1>;L=K5 2>A?@8=8<0NB :0: A5@45G=CN 1>;L fA. Maseri 8 A>02B., !985; . Mori, 1975].  :064>< A;CG05 1>;L=>9 2 A2O78 A 1>;O<8 2 A5@4F5 70=>2> ?5@568205B A2>N 1>;57=L, ;560ICN 2 8E >A=>25. "I0B5;L=K9 0=0<=57 1>;52KE >ICI5=89 <>65B AB0BL :;NG>< : ?>=8<0=8N A>AB>O=8O 1>;L=>3>. !. Droste 8 A>02B. (1986) ?>:070;8, GB> 1>;L=K5 8H5<8G5A:>9 1>;57=LN A5@4F0 2> <=>3>< 15A?><>I=K 2 >B=>H5=88 C3@>60NI8E B5;5A=KE A83=0;>2 8 @0A?>;030NB <0;K<8 @5AC@A0<8 4;O 8E ?@5>4>;5=8O. -B8 1>;L=K5 G0AB> >AB0NBAO =0548=5 A> A2>8< 0=0;87>< C3@>60NI53> 8< A>AB>O=8O. !2O70==K5 A MB8< AB@0E 8 =5C25@5==>ABL <>3CB 2 A2>N >G5@54L CA8;820BL A8<?B><K >A=>2=>3> 701>;520=8O. !. Mendes 8 A>02B. (1991) >1A;54>20;8 2 7@08;5 10 000 <C6G8= 8 >?@545;8;8 =0;8G85 ACI5AB25==>9 A2O78 <564C ?>O2;5=85< AB5=>:0@488 8 2K@065==>ABLN AB@0E0. !> 2@5<5=8 :;0AA8G5A:>3> 8AA;54>20=8O A. Master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ppels 8 A>02B. (1988) >1J548=8;8 MB8 ?A8E8G5A:85 0;LB5@0F88 2 A8=4@>< 8AB>I5=8O 8 ?>402;5==>AB8 8 2 A2>59 >G5=L >1AB>OB5;L=>9 @01>B5 ?>:070;8 8E 7=0G5=85 4;O ?@54A:070=8O 8H5<8G5A:>9 1>;57=8 A5@4F0 C 3600 <C6G8=. K >1=0@C68;8 B0:>9 =5A?5F8D8G5A:89 A8=4@>< 8AB>I5=8O 2 ?@54K=D0@:B=>9 D075 C 25% 1>;L=KE. @8<5G0B5;L=>, GB> :>@>=0@=K5 1>;L=K5 ?@840NB <0;> 7=0G5=8O MB8< ?@5425AB=8:0< 8=D0@:B0 <8>:0@40.  ?@>B82>?>;>6=>ABL 1>;L=K< A 2535B0B82=>9 48AB>=859 8 :0@48>D>18G5A:8< =52@>7>< MB8 1>;L=K5 2KB5A=ONB A2>8 =5?@8OB=K5 >ICI5=8O 8 4> ?>@K 4> 2@5<5=8 A:;>==K AG8B0BL 8E ?CABO:0<8. >@>=0@=K5 1>;L=K5 >B;8G0NBAO B>;5@0=B=>ABLN : A8<?B><0< A2>59 1>;57=8 8 4065 157@07;8G85< : =8<. B>@65=85 C3@>7K A0<>9 687=8 2A;54AB285 1>;59 >B25@305BAO 8 2KB5A=O5BAO, =0@88A-A8G5A:0O >1840 8AG5705B ;8HL ?5@54 A0<>9 :0B0AB@>D>9. H5<8G5A:0O 1>;57=L A5@4F0 >1=0@C68205B O2=CN F8@:04=>ABL A C;CGH5=85< A>AB>O=8O ?> CB@0< 8 CEC4H5=85< ?> =>G0<. &8@:04=>ABL >?@545;O5BAO 8 2 ?@>O2;5=8OE ?@8ABC?>2 AB5=>:0@488 [Taylor 8 A>02B., 1988], 2 =0G0;5 >AB@>3> 8=D0@:B0 <8>:0@40 [Mueller 8 A>02B., 1985], 0 B0:65 ?@8 ?>O2;5=88 8H5<88 <8>:0@40 [Hausmann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iegrist, 1982] A2O7K20NB MB> A> A@02=8B5;L=> 2KA>:>9 B@C4>2>9 =03@C7:>9 8 =54>AB0B:>< A>F80;L=>9 AB018;L=>AB8 2 MB>9 3@C??5 =0A5;5=8O. -?845<8>;>38 1K;8 ?>@065=K B5<, GB> ?>:070B5;8 8=D0@:B0 <8>:0@40 2 2>AB>G=>9 G0AB8 $8=;O=488 2 2 @070 2KH5, G5< 2 70?04=>9, ?@8 >BACBAB288 @07;8G89 A><0B8G5A:8E D0:B>@>2 @8A:0 <564C MB8<8 @538>=0<8. R. Rahe 8 A>02B. (1976) ?@>25;8 >1A;54>20=85 A ?><>ILN >?@>A=8:0 87=5==K5 A>1KB8O 8 =0H;8, GB> 1>;55 6QAB:85 CA;>28O A@54K 2 2>AB>G=>9 $8=;O=488 A>740NB 1>;LH5 =03@C7>: 8 687=5==KE ?5@5<5=. ?@>A=8:, 2:;NG0NI89 8 :>@>=0@=>5 ?>2545=85, >1=0@C68; E0@0:B5@=K5 8 @07;8G=K5 4;O @538>=>2 CAB0=>2:8: 2>AB>G=K5 D8==K =07K20NBAO ;N4L<8 4>;30 (<K 4>;6=K 45;0BL B0:..., <K 4>;6=K A51O 25AB8 B0:...) [R. Rahe 8 A>02B., 1977]. @54AB02;O5BAO ACI5AB25==K< 7=0G5=85 A>F80;L=KE 2;8O=89 8 B@048F89, :>B>@K5 254CB : >A>15==> @8384=K< CAB0=>2:0<, B0: GB> ;N48 2K=C645=K ?>AB>O==> ?@51K20BL 2 @0<:0E B@048F8>==KE ?@54?8A0=89. A8E>18>;>38O. A;54AB285 2>7459AB28O 0B5@>35==KE D0:B>@>2 D>@<8@C5BAO A8<?B><>:><?;5:A, :>B>@K9 ?@54AB02;O5B A>1>9 >B25B =0 @07;8G=K5 ?>2@5645=8O [W. Doerr, 1983], @0728205BAO ?>@065=85 M=4>B5;8O :0: :;NG52>9 D5=><5= 0B5@>A:;5@>70. >2>@O ?@>I5, A>3;0A=> MB>9 <>45;8 @0728B8O, 0B5@>A:;5@>7 2>7=8:05B :0: >B25B 8=B8<K =0 ?>2@5645=85 M=4>B5;8O, :>B>@K9 1;03>40@O B0: =07K205<K< D0:B>@0< @>AB0 87 ?@8;8?0NI8E : AB5=:5 A>AC40 :@>2O=KE ?;0AB8=>: ?@82>48B : AB8<C;8@>20=8N :;5B>: 3;04:>9 <CA:C;0BC@K A@54=59 >1>;>G:8. =8 2B>@30NBAO G5@57 >:=0 M;0AB8G5A:>9 >1>;>G:8 2 8=B8<C, 345, >G5284=>, B5@ONB A2>8 A>:@0B8B5;L=K5 A2>9AB20, ?@8>1@5B0O DC=:F88 A8=B578@>20=8O [Ross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erem (1980) 2 >?KB0E =0 682>B=KE =0HQ; C =8E A>25@H5==> ?>-@07=><C @072820NI85AO 0B5@>A:;5@>B8G5A:85 87<5=5=8O A>AC4>2.  ?@>8AE>645=88 MB8E 87<5=5=89 A>25@H5==> =5 8A:;NG05BAO G8AB> C<>7@8B5;L=>5 ?@54AB02;5=85 > 2;8O=88 =0 682>B=KE A0<>3> 8AA;54>20B5;O  2 40==>< A;CG05 ;8F0, CE06820NI53> 70 =8<8. 0 MB>< >A=>20=88 1K;0 @07@01>B0=0 M:A?5@8<5=B0;L=0O AE5<0 >F5=:8 2;8O=8O A>F80;L=>9 A@54K (social environment) =0 8=4CF8@>20==K9 A?5F80;L=>9 485B>9 0B5@>A:;5@>7 C :@>;8:>2. K;8 AD>@<8@>20=K 3 M:A?5@8<5=B0;L=K5 8 2 :>=B@>;L=K5 3@C??K. !5@88 >?KB>2 1K;8 ?@>2545=K B>645AB25==>; 2 B5G5=85 5 6 =54 682>B=K5 ?>;CG0;8 :>@<, A>45@602H89 2% E>;5AB5@8=0.  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Liljefors 8 R. Rahe 8AA;54>20;8 32 ?0@K >4=>O9F>2KE 1;87=5F>2, :>B>@K5 1K;8 48A:>@40=B=K 2 >B=>H5=88 :>@>=0@=KE 701>;520=89. !><0B8G5A:85 D0:B>@K @8A:0 @0745;8;8AL ?>@>2=C, => C ?@>10=4>2 1;87=5F>2, ?>425@65==KE A5@45G=K< 701>;520=8O<, 8<5;8AL <=>3>G8A;5==K5 ?@>1;5<K =0 @01>B5 8 2 A5<59=KE >B=>H5=8OE, >=8 =5 1K;8 C4>2;5B2>@5=K A2>8<8 687=5==K<8 CA;>28O<8 8 1K;8 =5 A?>A>1=K : A=OB8N =0?@O65=8O. !>>B25BAB25==> :>=F5?F88 <=>3>D0:B>@=>9 MB8>;>388 A;54C5B 8A:0BL B0:65 8AE>4=CN 7=0G8<>ABL ?A8E8G5A:8E D0:B>@>2 2> <=>38E AD5@0E.  F5;>< >=8 459AB2CNB B>;L:> A>2<5AB=> A 8725AB=K<8 A><0B8G5A:8<8 D0:B>@0<8 @8A:0 (38?5@E>;5AB5@8=5<8O, 0@B5@80;L=0O 38?5@B5=-78O, :C@5=85, A0E0@=K9 48015B, 871KB>G=0O <0AA0 B5;0). ?@545;5=> 3 >A=>2=KE 20@80=B0: A. -<>F88 8 4CH52=K5 =03@C7:8 >:07K20NB ?@O<>5 2;8O=85 =0 :>@>=0@=>5 :@>2>>1@0I5=85, ?@>=8F05<>ABL M=4>B5;8O 8 =5?>A@54AB25==> =0 A5@4F5 (:0B5E>;0<8=K!). . A8E>A><0B8G5A:85 2;8O=8O ACI5AB25==K 4;O 2>7=8:=>25=8O 0@B5@80;L=>9 38?5@B5=788, >=8 >:07K20NB 2;8O=85 =0 >1<5= 68@>2 (>10 O2;ONBAO D0:B>@0<8 @8A:0!) 8 2K7K20NB :0: >1I89 0B5@>A:;5@>7, B0: 8 0B5@>A:;5@>7 :>@>=0@=KE A>AC4>2. B. A8E>A><0B8G5A:85 D0:B>@K >:07K20NB 2>7459AB285 =0 ?>2545=85 (?>2545=85 @8A:0), ?>2KH5=85 ?8I52>9 ?>B@51=>AB8, =5C<5@5==>5 ?>B@51;5=85 ?@>4C:B>2 ?8B0=8O, >68@5=85 8 ?@82>4OB : 7;>C?>B@51;5=8N :C@5=85<. >B820F88 8<5NB 7=0G5=85 8 4;O ?@>D5AA8>=0;L=>9 @01>B>A?>A>1=>AB8.  F5=B@5 2=8<0=8O ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8E 8AA;54>20=89 ?>A;54=8E 45AOB8;5B89 =0E>48;>AL ?>2545=85 ;8G=>AB8, :>B>@>5 R. Rosenman 8 A>-02B. (1966) >?8A0;8 :0: ?>2545=85 B8?0 . # ;8F A ?>2545=85< B8?0  2 ?@>A?5:B82KE =01;N45=8OE =57028A8<> >B A><0B8G5A:8E D0:B>@>2 @8A:0 G5@57 8,5 ;5B >1=0@C6820;8 2 2.37 @070 1>;LH5 A;CG052 8=D0@:B0 <8>:0@40, G5< C B5E, :>B>@K5 =5 ?@>O2;O;8 B0:>3> ?>2545=8O, B.5. ?@8=04;560;8 : B8?C . >2545=85 B8?0 , B0:8< >1@07><, 8<55B =5<0;>5 7=0G5=85 :0: >1I89 D0:B>@ @8A:0 @0728B8O 8=D0@:B0 <8>:0@40. .MB><C B8?C ;8G=>AB8 (?>2545=85 B8?0 ) >B=>AOBAO ;N48, :>B>@K5 @01>B0NB 8=B5=A82=> 8 A ?>AB>O==K< AB@5<;5=85< : CA?5EC. =8 AB02OB ?5@54 A>1>9 2KA>:85, => GQB:> >?@545;O5<K5 F5;8, :>B>@KE =0AB>9G82> 4>1820NBAO, >=8 ?@>O2;ONB 1>;LHCN ?>B@51=>ABL 2 ?@87=0=88 8 2 ?@>42865=88 2?5@54, 8=B5=A82=> :>=:C@8@CNB A >:@C60NI8<8. # =8E >B<5G0NBAO 2KA>:0O <>B>@=0O ?>B@51=>ABL, =5>1KG=>5 AB@5<;5=85 : 4CH52=>9 8 D878G5A:>9 0:B82=>AB8. < 2A5340 =5 E20B05B 2@5<5=8, >=8 =5B5@?5;82K, 4>;6=K 2A53> 4>AB8GL :0: <>6=> A:>@55. 01;N45=8O 2 48=0<8:5 >:07K20NB CAB>9G82>ABL ?>2545=8O B8?0 , :>B>@>5 (GB> 206=> 2 ?;0=5 B5@0?88) <5=O5BAO A B@C4>< [!. 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MB>B @07 >= ?@>HQ; ?>;=K9 :C@ AB0F8>=0@=>3> ;5G5=8O 8 ?@>O28; 3>B>2=>ABL : ?>A;54CNI5<C 0<1C;0B>@=><C ;5G5=8N-4=0:> ?@>25AB8 A =8< ?A8E>B5@0?52B8G5A:85 A50=AK 1K;> =52>7<>6=>. '5@57 =5A:>;L' :> =545;L >= AB0; ?>A5I0BL 8E =5@53C;O@=>, 0 G5@57 3 <5A 25@=C;AO : ?@56=59 45OB5;L=>AB8 8 2>>1I5 ?@5:@0B8; ;5G5=85.  ?@8254Q==>9 8AB>@88 1>;57=8 GQB:> >1=0@C68;>AL B>, GB> ?5@2>=0G0;L=> F. Dunbar (1943), 0 ?>765 J. Groen 8 Bastiaans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'0AB> 2A;54AB285 845=B8D8:0F88 A51O A <8@>< >BF0 >=8 ?@8E>4OB : AB@>3><C !25@E-/, ?@8=C640NI5<C 8E : 45OB5;L=>AB8 8 ?@8A?>A>1;5=8N. E >B=>H5=85 : >1J5:B82=><C <8@C E0@0:B5@87C5BAO AB@5<;5=85< : 4><8=8@>20=8N 8 70I8B>9 A2>53> 65;0=8O A0<>?>65@B2>20=8O, C2;5GQ==>AB8. 0@L5@0 1>;L=>3> 8H5<8G5A:>9 1>;57=LN A5@4F0 E0@0:B5@87C5BAO A ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8E ?>78F89 :0: ?>A;54>20B5;L=>5 G5@54>20=85 >?@545-;Q==KE(AB0489  A8=4@><>2 38?5@0:B82=>AB8, A25@E:><?5=A0F88 8 :@CH5=8O [. Ladwig, 1986]. !8=4@>< 38?5@0:B82=>AB8. A8E>;>38G5A:8 G5AB>;N1820O 8 B@C4>;N1820O ;8G=>ABL @0AA<0B@8205BAO :0: :>=AB0=B0 2 >?@545;5=88 ?@>D8;O ?>4-5@65==>9 :>@>=0@=K< 701>;520=8O< ;8G=>AB8 =57028A8<> >B @07;8G8O 273;O4>2 @07=KE ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8E =0CG=KE H:>;. &5;5=0?@02;5==0O 8 #A5@4=0O ;8G=>ABL [F. Dunbar, 1943], BI5A;02=K9 GC2AB28B5;L=K9 G5;>-5: A 0=0=:0AB=K<8 G5@B0<8 8 A8;L=K< AB@5<;5=85< : ?@87=0=8N 8 ?@5AB86C [L. Aresin, 1960], G5;>25: A 2K@065==K<8 ?@87=0:0<8 =02O7G82>9 @8384=>AB8 [P. Hahn, 1981]  2> 2A5E MB8E E0@0:B5@8AB8:0E A>2<5I0NBAO G5@BK ?>2545=8O, >?@545;O5<K5 A?5F80;L=K<8 ?A8E>;>38G5A:8<8 8AA;54>20=8O<8 :0: 8=B5=A82=0O 4;8B5;L=0O ?>B@51=>ABL 2 CA?5E5; G5AB>;N182>-:>=:C@8@CNI55 ?>2545=85, ?>AB>O==>5 65;0=85 ?@87=0=8O [R. Rosenman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">B, :B> @5038@C5B =0 ?@52KH5=85 A?>A>1=>AB59 ?@8A?>A>1;5=8O <5E0=87<0<8 70I8B=>9 :><?5=A0F88 (8=D5:F88 8 4@C385 10=0;L=K5 701>;520=8O 8=>340 8<5NB 2 A2>59 >A=>25 B0:85 <5E0=87<K), B>B B5@O5B 2=CB@8?A8E8G5A-:89 <5E0=87< :>=B@>;O (GC2AB2> <5@K) =04 2K720==K<8 AB@5AA>< DC=:F8>=0;L=K<8 ?@>F5AA0<8, B0:>9 ?0F85=B @8A:0 45<>=AB@8@C5B M<>F8>=0;L=CN A45@60==>ABL 8 A>F80;L=CN ?@8A?>A>1;5==>ABL. 4=0:> 53> M<>F8>=0;L=>5 A>AB>O=85 ?5@54 @0728B85< 8=D0@:B0 <8>:0@40 >?@545;O5BAO :0: 8AB>I5=85 8 45?@5AA8O [A. Appels 8 A>02B., 1988]. 5?@5AA8N A 5Q 8AB>G=8:>< 2 @07=>?>;NA=>< 8 <=>3>:@0B=> @0720;8202H5<AO A8=4@><5 38?5@0:B82=>AB8 C65 >B@8F0BL =52>7<>6=>. -B8< >1JOA=O5BAO B>B D0:B, GB> 2 ?>43@C??5 1>;L=KE 8=D0@:B=>< <8>:0@40 A BO6Q;K<8 45?@5AA82=K<8 A>AB>O=8O<8 1K;> 2 2 @070 1>;LH5 A;CG052 0@B5@80;L=>9 38?5@B5=788, G5< 2 >1I59 3@C??5 1>;L=KE. 8?5@0:B82=>ABL 8 2@06451=>ABL  :><?>=5=BK, :>B>@K<, ?> A>2@5<5==K< ?@54AB02;5=8O<, ?@840QBAO >A=>2=>5 7=0G5=85. 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oseman (1982) 8 . Friedman 8 A>02B. (1984). 0B0<=5AB8G5A:85 =01;N45=8O (592 1>;L=KE) G5@57 3 3>40 ?>:070;8 >4=>7=0G=>5 A=865=85 ?> A@02=5=8N A> A;CG09=>9 ?>41>@:>9 :>=B@>;L=>9 3@C??K :>;8G5AB20 ?>2B>@=KE 8=D0@:B>2 <8>:0@40, :>B>@KE 2 5G51=>9 3@C??5 1K;> =0 50% <5=LH5, G5< 2 :>=B@>;L=>9,  7,2% ?@>B82 3,2% [. Friedman, 1983; A<. @8A. 7 8 8). 0@48>;>38G5A:0O B5@0?8O. 5G5=85 8H5<8G5A:>9 1>;57=8 A5@4F0 A>AB>8B 2 ?5@2CN >G5@54L 2 8A:;NG5=88 D0:B>@>2 @8A:0 8 2 <548:0<5=B>7=>9 B5@0?88 (=8B@0BK, -04@5=>1;>:0B>@K 8 0=B03>=8ABK :0;LF8O), :>B>@K5, >4=0:>, =5 <>3CB >15A?5G8BL >1@0B=>5 @0728B85 AB5=>70 :>@>=0@=KE A>AC4>2. 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A>15==> B8?8G5= 4;O 0AB<0B8:>2 :>=D;8:B 2 A2O78 A 45BA:>9 ?@5-25@10;L=>9 D>@<>9 2K@065=8O 2 2845 ?;0G0: ?;0G :0: ?5@20O 2>7<>6=>ABL ?>720BL <0BL 1C45B ?>402;OBLAO @51Q=:><, ?>B><C GB> >= 1>8BAO <0B5@8=A:8E C?@Q:>2 8 5Q >B:070. 0B5@8 0AB<0B8:>2 G0AB> ?@>O2;ONB 0<1820;5=B=>5 ?>2545=85, :>B>@>5 >4=>2@5<5==> 2K@0605B AB@5<;5=85 : >1;040=8N 8 @C:>2>4AB2C 8 2 B> 65 2@5<O >B:07 >B MB>3>. >A:>;L:C 1;87>ABL : <0B5@8 C65 2 @0==5< 45BAB25 A>?@O65=0 A> AB@0E><, B> ?>765 =0@CH0NBAO 4>25@8B5;L=K5 >B=>H5=8O A <0B5@LN 8;8 ;8F><, 5Q 70<5I0NI8<. >;L=K5 =0E>4OBAO 2 A>AB>O=88 :>=D;8:B0 <564C 8E 65;0=85< 702>520BL 4>25@85 8 AB@0E>< ?5@54 MB8<. BAN40, A>3;0A=> F. Alexander (1951), 2>7=8:0NB =0@CH5=8O DC=:F88 4KE0=8O: 0AB<0B8G5A:85 ?@8?04:8 (M:A?8@0B>@=>5 B>@<>65=85) 70=8<0NB <5AB> =0@CH5==KE 2 @0==5< 45BAB25 D>@< ?@525@10;L=>3> >1I5=8O. @>=E80;L=0O 0AB<0  ?5@2>5 701>;520=85 2=CB@5==8E >@30=>2, :>B>@>5 AB0;8 87CG0BL ?A8E>0=0;8B8:8. 8.1.1913 0C;L $545@= (P. Federn) =0 70A540=88 5=A:>3> ?A8E>0=0;8B8G5A:>3> >1I5AB20, 2 :>B>@>< ?@8=O; CG0AB85 8 3. $@594, A45;0; 4>:;04 ?>4 =0-7=020=85< @8<5@ A42830 ;8184> 2> 2@5<O ;5G5=8O, 2 :>B>@>< A>>1I8; > ;5G82H5<AO C =53> <5B>4>< ?A8E>0=0;870 1>;L=>< 1@>=E80;L=>9 0AB<>9. = >?@545;8; >A=>2=K5 ?A8E>0=0;8B8G5A:85 :>=F5?F88 2 >B=>H5=88 1@>=E80;L=>9 0AB<K: >A>1>5 7=0G5=85 8<5NB >1>=O=85 8 @>B :0: M@>35==0O 7>=0, :>B>@K5 2A;54AB285 2KA>:>3> C@>2=O A5:AC0;L=>AB8 2 45BA:>< 2>7@0AB5 ?@82>4OB : D8:A0F88 ;8184> =0 4KE0B5;L=>< B@0:B5.  D075 @0728B8O M48?>20 :><?;5:A0 ?@>8AE>48B @53@5AA82=K9 A4283 ;8184> 2 MBC AD5@C. @5M48?>20 8 M48?>20 D8:A0F8O =0 >1@075 <0B5@8 ?@82>48B : 8=D0=B8;L=K< D0=B078O<, :>B>@K5 A>A@54>B>G820NBAO 2 AD5@0E 4KE0=8O, >1>=O=8O, ?@8Q<0 ?8I8 8 2K45;5=8O. AB<C, A>3;0A=> P. Federn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einer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ees, 1956]. 'B>1K >?@545;8BL 2;8O=85 ?>2545=8O @>48B5;59 =0 @0728B85 1@>=E80;L=>9 0AB<K C 45B59, L. Rees (1964) 0=0;878@>20; C 330 45B59 >A>15==>AB8 2>A?8B0=8O, :>B>@>5 4020;8 8< @>48B5;8. -B> 1K;8 170 45B59 87 >B45;5=8O 4;O 0AB<0B8:>2 8 160 45B59 87 B@02<0B>;>38G5A:>3> AB0F8>=0@0 B>9 65 1>;L=8FK. 0@O4C A ?5480B@8G5A:8<8 8AA;54>20=8O<8 ?@>2>48;8AL ?A8E>;>38G5A:85 8 ?A8E80B@8G5A:85 8=B5@2LN A CG0AB85< @>48B5;59, ?@8GQ< >?@545;O;8AL 8 >F5=820;8AL @>48B5;LA:85 CAB0=>2:8 157 CGQB0 8E 7=0=8O B>3>, GB> <>3;> ?@825AB8 : @0728B8N 701>;520=8O C @51Q=:0. 5B8 8 @>48B5;8 =01;N40;8AL >B 2 4> 5 <5A, ?@8GQ< A>18@0;8AL A2545=8O =5 B>;L:> C @>48B5;59, => 8 C 8E 4@C759 8 @>4AB25==8:>2. 57C;LB0BK 8AA;54>20=89 ?@82545=K 2 B01;. 7. "01;8F0 7 '0AB>B0 @07;8G=KE D>@< ?>2545=8O 8 CAB0=>2>: C @>48B5;59 0AB<0B8:>2 8 2 :>=B@>;L=>9 3@C??5 [L. Rees, 1964] >48B5;LA:85 CAB0=>2:8 >;L=K5 1@>=E80;L=>9 0AB<>9, % >=B@>;L=0O 3@C??0, % >78B82=> 2>A?@8=8<05<K5 CAB0=>2:8 4482530B82=> 2>A?@8=8<05<K5 CAB0=>2:8:  38?5@>?5:0 44,514 B@51>20B5;L=>ABL 72 >B:@KB>5 ?@5=51@565=85 4,52>=5G=>, =5 A;54C5B >6840BL, GB>1K C 2A5E 0AB<0B8:>2 <0B5@8 1K;8 >4=>3> ?A8E>;>38G5A:>3> B8?0. L. Rees (1964) >1=0@C68; O2=>5 ?@5>1;040=85 A25@E701>B;82KE <0B5@59. -B> A>>B25BAB2C5B :;8=8G5A:8< =01;N45=8O<, 2 A>>B25BAB288 A :>B>@K<8 ?@5>1;040NB A25@E0:B82=K5 8 2> 2AQ 2<5H820NI85AO <0B5@8, GB> ?@82>48B : G@57<5@=>9 7028A8<>AB8 @51Q=:0. 5 O2;O5BAO ;8 B0:>5 ?>2545=85 A;54AB285< BO6Q;>9 8 2K7K20NI59 AB@0E 1>;57=8 @51Q=:0?  ?>A;54CNI8E @01>B0E L. Rees ?>:070;, GB> =5 <5=55 G5< 2 ?>;>28=5 A5<59 @0728B8N 701>;520=8O ?@54H5AB2C5B A25@E701>B;82>5 8;8, =0>1>@>B, ?@5=51@568B5;L=>5, 0 =5 B@51>20B5;L=>5 ?>2545=85 <0B5@59. !25@E701>B;82K5 <0B5@8 2>7459AB2CNB A2>59 =56=>ABLN, ?@8BO3820NB @51Q=:0 A2>59 ?@82O70==>ABLN 8 70B>@<06820NB 03@5AA82=K5 8 <>B>@=K5 @07@O4K, 0 70>4=> 8 A0<>AB>OB5;L=>5 @0728B85 @51Q=:0. >65B ;8 MB>B @0==89 45BA:89 >?KB A>740BL A><0B8G5A:CN 70I8BC 2 2845 A?07<0 1@>=E>2? 54L 8<5==> 45BA:0O 0AB<0 >1JOA=O5BAO :0: ?>402;5==K9 :@8: ?@>B82 <0B5@8 (A. Mitscherlich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astiaans 8 J. Groen, 1954]. @8 8AA;54>20=8OE A ?><>ILN 2>?@>A=8:0 8 A5@88 B5AB>2 A. Jores 8 . Kerekjarto (1967) CAB0=>28;8 A;54CNI85 ?@87=0:8: 0AB<0B8:8 >G5=L A8;L=> ?5@56820NB 03@5AA82=>ABL, => =5 ?@>O2;ONB 55; >=8 =54>25@G82K 8 ?>4>7@8B5;L=K 8 ?>MB><C =5 A:;>==K : A0<>?>65@B2>20=8N. =8 >B;8G0NBAO A8;L=K< / 8 B0:8< 65 A8;L=K< A25@E-/. !@548 >1I59 ?>?C;OF88 2K45;5=0 3@C??0 A ?>2KH5==>9 GC2AB28B5;L=>ABLN : 70?0E0<, 8 >=0 =0 50% A>AB>O;0 87 0AB<0B8:>2. >2KH5==0O GC2AB28B5;L=>ABL 1>;L=KE 1@>=E80;L=>9 0AB<>9 : 70?0E0< C65 402=> 8725AB=0 2@0G0< 8 >B@065=0 2 ;8B5@0BC@5. ">, GB> A?07< 1@>=E>2 A;54C5B :0: >B25B =0 >;LD0:B>@=>5 8 A5=A>@=>5 @074@065=85 =>A0, ?>:07K20NB ?A8E>D878>;>38G5A:85 M:A?5@BK. > C 0AB<0B8:>2 =5B A=865==>3> D878>;>38G5A:>3> 8/8;8 ?A8E>;>38G5A:>3> ?>@>30 2 >B=>H5=88 2A5E 70?0E>2. 5?@8OB=K5 70?0E8 8AE>4OB ?@5645 2A53> >B ?@54<5B>2, A2O70==KE A =5G8AB>B0<8 8 3@O7LN 2 H8@>:>< A<KA;5 A;>20. "0:0O 65 A25@EGC2AB28B5;L=>ABL : ?>4>1=K< 70?0E0< @0A?@>AB@0=O5BAO =0 3@O7=K5 A?>A>1K ?>2545=8O >:@C60NI8E, => ?@5645 2A53> =0 A>1AB25==K5 3@O7=K5 ?><KA;K.  MB><C A?>A>1C 70I8BK >B=>A8BAO G@57<5@=>5 AB@5<;5=85 =5:>B>@KE 65=I8= : G8AB>B5 2 4><5. 5=I8=K, 1>;L=K5 1@>=E80;L=>9 0AB<>9, G0I5 1K20NB D@8384=K, 0 C <C6G8= G0I5 8<5NBAO =0@CH5=8O ?>B5=F88 [A. Jores 8 . Kerekjarto, 1967]. 5 O2;O5BAO =5>6840==K<8 MB8 =0@CH5=8O C;8F A =02O7G82>-=52@>B8G5A:>9 AB@C:BC@>9, :>B>@K5 2K=C645=K ?>402;OBL A5:AC0;L=K5 8 03@5AA82=K5 ?>1C645=8O. 0:>=><5@5= 2>?@>A, =5 O2;ONBAO ;8 ;8G=>AB=K5 ?@87=0:8 0AB<0B8:>2 2B>@8G=K<8, 7028AOI8<8 >B 1>;57=8 G5@B0<8 ?A8E8:8, ?@>O2;5=8O<8 2B>@8G=>9 =52@>B870F88. @8 AB>;L 4;8B5;L=>< B5G5=88 1>;57=8  3>40<8 8;8 4065 45AOB8;5B8O<8  2;8O=85 A0<>9 1>;57=8, 3>A?8B0;870F88, ?@>D5AA8>=0;L=>9 =5?@83>4=>AB8, 7028A8<>AB8 >B A5<L8 8 2@0G59 40QB >A=>20=8O >6840BL 2B>@8G=KE ?A8E8G5A:8E 87<5=5=89, :>B>@K5 2:;NG0NBAO 2 >?8A0=8O, :070;>AL 1K, A?5F8D8G5A:8E 4;O 1>;57=8 ;8G=>AB=KE AB@C:BC@. > :0: @07 C 0AB<0B8:>2 2 >B;8G85 >B 1>;L=KE BC15@:C;Q7>< 8 ?>@>:0<8 A5@4F0 <K C65 A A0<>3> =0G0;0 1>;57=8 2848< >?@545;Q==K5 G5@BK, :>B>@K5 =5 CA8;820NBAO =0 ?@>BO65=88 1>;57=8: =54>AB0B>G=K5 A?>A>1=>AB8, 03@5AA82=>ABL, =0?@02;5==0O =0 >:@C60NI8E, 8 A0<>>128=5=8O 2 MB>9 03@5AA82=>AB8. AB<0B8:8 A:;>==K 2>>1I5 >B:070BLAO >B 03@5AA82=>AB8, :0: MB> ?>:070;8 A. Mayer 8 . Weitermeyer (1967). # 0AB<0B8:>2 ?@>2>48;8AL =01;N45=8O <5B>4>< D@CAB@0F8>==>3> B5AB0 >75=F25930 A :0@B8=:0<8. 0 :0@B8=:0E 87>1@065=K ?>2A54=52=K5 :>=D;8:B=K5 A8BC0F88, A>45@60I85 :><?>=5=BK D@CAB@0F88 8 1;87:85 : A45@68205<K< 03@5AA82=K< @50:F8O<, =0?@8<5@ 02B><>18;8AB, 54CI89 =0 1>;LH>9 A:>@>AB8 G5@57 ;C6C, >1@K738205B ?5H5E>40, @5G520O @50:F8O :>B>@>3> =0?8A0=0 2 >20;5, 8AE>4OI5< 87 53> @B0. 30 65=I8=, 1>;L=KE 1@>=E80;L=>9 0AB<>9, ?> A@02=5=8N A :>=B@>;L=>9 3@C??>9 74>@>2KE 8 =52@>B8:>2 G0I5 >1=0@C6820;8 A0<>C?@Q:8 8 03@5AA8N 2 >B=>H5=88 A51O. '8A;> =0?@02;5==KE 2>2=5 @50:F89 7=0G8B5;L=> <5=LH5, G5< C 74>@>2KE ;N459. -B>B B5AB ?>:07K205B, GB> C 1>;L=KE ?>402;O5BAO <0=8D5AB=>5 03@5AA82=>5 ?>2545=85, =0?@02;5==>5 2>2=5, D>@<8@>20=85 D0=B0789 8 8E 25@10;870F8O ?5@56820NBAO :0: >?0A=K5 8 ?>B><C =0?@02;ONBAO 2=CB@L 8 ?5@5=>AOBAO 2 B5;5A=CN AD5@C. @>3=>7.  4>ABC?=KE ?A8E>B5@0?88 A;CG0OE ?@>3=>7 2> <=>3>< 7028A8B >B B>3>, =0A:>;L:> @0=> 1>;L=K5 =0G8=0NB ;5G5=85. A;8 1>;L=>9 A<8@8;AO A> 2A5<8 687=5==> 206=K<8 CA;>28O<8 A2>53> 1KB8O, >= @53@5AA82=> 268205BAO 2 A><0B8G5A:89 8 ?A8E8G5A:89 AB0BCA A2>53> ACI5AB2>20=8O, 8 B>340 1K205B B@C4=>, CG8BK20O 5I5 8 ?0=F8@L E0@0:B5@0 0AB<0B8:0, ?@82;5GL 1>;L=>3> : =>2><C 284C ;5G5=8O. J. Groen 8 . Pelser (1960) @5B@>A?5:B82=> =01;N40;8 ?@87=0:8 1>;L=KE, C :>B>@KE ?>A;5 3@C??>2>9 ?A8E>B5@0?88 1K;> 4>AB83=CB> 7=0G8B5;L=>5 C;CGH5=85 8;8 2K74>@>2;5=85. > 8E 40==K<, 3@C??>20O ?A8E>B5@0?8O O2;O5BAO MDD5:B82=K< <5B>4>< ;5G5=8O 4;O ?@>ABKE ;N459 A CAB>O2H8<AO E0@0:B5@><, A =0;8G85< AB@0E>2 8 B@C4=>ABO<8 :>=B0:B>2. CGH5 2A53> ?>440NBAO ;5G5=8N <>;>4K5 1>;L=K5 8 ?@5645 2A53> =5 =C640NI85AO 2 3>A?8B0;870F88, 8<5NI85 AC?@C3>2, A :>B>@K<8 >=8 =0E>4OB >1I89 O7K:, 8<5NI85 C4>2;5B2>@8B5;L=K5 CA;>28O @01>BK 8 3>B>2K5 >1AC640BL 2 3@C??5 A2>8 M<>F8>=0;L=K5 :>=D;8:BK. @>3=>AB8G5A:8 =51;03>?@8OB=K ?>74=89 2>7@0AB, G0ABK5 3>A?8B0;870F88, =51;03>?>;CG=K5 >B=>H5=8O 2 A5<L5 8 A 4@C38<8 1;87:8<8 ;N4L<8, 0 B0:65 =51;03>?@8OB=0O A8BC0F8O =0 @01>B5 8;8 >BACBAB285 @01>BK. "0:65 =5 4>AB830NB CA?5E0 8 B5 1>;L=K5, :>B>@K5 2 3@C??5 B>;L:> 2>71C640NBAO, =5 3>B>2K A:070BL > A515 ?@024C, @0=LH5 8;8 ?>765 2ABC?0NB 2 :>=D;8:B A0<8 A A>1>9 8;8 A 3@C??>9. 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roen 8 . Pelser (1960) A@02=820;8 @57C;LB0BK G8AB> A8<?B><0B8G5A:>3> ;5G5=8O (8=30;OF88, MD54@8=, MCD8;;8= 8 4@.), B5@0?88 :>@B8:>AB5@>840<8 8 3@C??>2>9 B5@0?88 (A A8<?B><0B8G5A:>9 B5@0?859 8 ?@8 =5>1E>48<>AB8 ;5G5=85< :>@B8:>AB5@>840<8). @8 A@02=5=88 MB8E @57C;LB0B>2 >?@545;8;8AL AB0B8AB8G5A:8 4>AB>25@=K5 @07;8G8O, A2845B5;LAB2CNI85 > ?>;L75 ?A8E>B5@0?52B8G5A:8E <5B>4>2 ;5G5=8O. > 8 ?A8E>B5@0?52B8G5A:8< <5B>40< ;5G5=8O ;CGH5 2A53> ?>440NBAO 1>;L=K5, C :>B>@KE ?@5>1;040NB ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:85 ?@8G8=K 1>;57=8 8;8 >=8 ?> :@09=59 <5@5 83@0NB @>;L D0:B>@>2, A?>A>1AB2CNI8E @0728B8N 1>;57=8. 06=0O 2@0G51=0O 7040G0 (?@8 CAB0=>2;5=88 ?>:070=89 4;O ?A8E>B5@0?88) A>AB>8B 2 >B45;5=88 ?@83>4=KE 4;O ;5G5=8O ?0F85=B>2 >B =5?@83>4=KE. . Deter G. 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Lichtenberg, 1991).  @0==5< 45BAB25 E0@0:B5@ A2O78 >?@545;ONB :0: ?0AA82=>-@5F5?B82=K5, B0: 8 0:B82=> =0?@02;5==K5 =0 ?>8A: 8AB>G=8:>2 @074@065=8O 8 =0?@O65=8O <><5=BK.  0DD5:B82=>< @0728B88 >@0;L=>9 D07K ?KB0;8AL 2K45;8BL 420 MB0?0  ?0AA82=>-@5F5?B82=K9 8 0:B82=K9 03@5AA82=>-?>8A:>2K9. 10 MB8 :><?>=5=B0 ?>AB>O==> >1=0@C6820NBAO 8 2 B0: =07K205<KE >@0;L=KE AB@C:BC@0E, 8 2 B8?0E ?>2545=8O. ! 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Spitz, 1957]. $878>;>38O 8I520@5=8O $878>;>38G5A:0O DC=:F8O ?8I520@8B5;L=>3> B@0:B0 A>AB>8B 2 ?@8Q<5 ?8I8 8 5Q ?5@520@820=88. ;O MB>3> >= @0A?>;0305B A>1AB25==>9 8<<C==>9 A8AB5<>9. -B> =5>1E>48<>, B0: :0: A;878AB0O >1>;>G:0 65;C4>G=>-:8H5G=>3> B@0:B0 :0: =8:0:0O 8=0O ?>25@E=>ABL 2 >@30=87<5 ?>425@305BAO 2>7459AB28N B>:A8G=KE 25I5AB2, 28@CA=KE, 10:B5@80;L=KE 8 ?0@078B0@=KE AC1AB0=F89 8 <8:@>>@30=87<>2. 'B>1K 2K?>;=8BL MBC A;>6=CN 7040GC, 65;C4>G=>-:8H5G=K9 B@0:B =C6405BAO 2 8=B0:B=>9 A;878AB>9 >1>;>G:5 8 =0;8G88 @O40 8<<C=>:><?5B5=B=KE :;5B>: (GUT-acco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arrison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M:>=><8G5A:8 @0728BKE AB@0=0E G0AB>B0 70?>@>2 B5A=> A2O70=0 A E0@0:B5@>< ?8B0=8O 8 >1@07>< 687=8.  =0G0;5 XX 25:0 4>;O 10;;0AB=KE 25I5AB2 2 ?8I5 1K;0 2 4-5 @07 1>;LH5, G5< B5?5@L. # 68B5;59 0D@8:0=A:>9 45@52=8, ?8I0 :>B>@KE =0AKI5=0 10;;0AB=K<8 25I5AB20<8 (:;5BG0B:>9), >1JQ< :0;>2KE <0AA 25;8:, 0 2@5<O 53> 2K45;5=8O =5?@>4>;68B5;L=>.  A@02=5=88 A MB8< >1JQ< :0;>2KE <0AA C 0=3;8G0= [D. Burkitt, 1971] =525;8:, 0 2@5<O 2K45;5=8O 1>;55 ?@>4>;68B5;L=>. >7=8:=>25=8N 70?>@>2 <>3CB A?>A>1AB2>20BL 38?>48=0<8O 8 B>@>?;82K9 8 =5@53C;O@=K9 ?@8Q< ?8I8. K45;5=85 M:A:@5<5=B>2 ?>4G8=O5BAO :C;LBC@=K< B@51>20=8O<, :>B>@K5 B5A=> A2O70=K A :C;LB>< G8AB>BK. @8 MB>< 8<5NBAO @07;8G8O, A2>9AB25==K5 @07=K< :C;LBC@0< 8 A;>O< =0A5;5=8O. 0?>@K 1K20NB :0: C F828;87>20==KE, B0: 8 C ?@8<8B82=KE =0@>4>2.  F5;>< 65 2 A>F80;L=> 1>;55 2KA>:8E A;>OE, :>B>@K5 1>;LH5 ?@825@65=K :C;LBC G8AB>BK, G5< =87H85, G0I5 2AB@5G0NBAO 8 70?>@K. !@548 <C6G8= 2 0=5, A@548 65=I8= 2 @5F88 8 A@548 ?0F85=B>2 1>;LH>9 ?>;8:;8=8:8 2 5@<0=88 (8A5=) 70?>@0<8 G0I5 AB@040NB ?@54AB028B5;8 2KAH8E A;>52.  =488 ?><5H0==K5 =0 G8AB>B5 1@0E<0=K (:0AB0 6@5F>2) AB@040NB 70?>@0<8 G0H5, G5< ?@54AB028B5;8 :0ABK =5?@8:0A05<KE, :>B>@K5 70=8<0NBAO C1>@:>9 <CA>@0 [. Pflanz, 1962].  F5;>< A>>B=>H5=85 65=I8= 8 <C6G8= A>AB02;O5B 3:1 8;8 2:1; A@548 74>@>2KE A;C60I8E ?@54?@8OB89 AB@040NB 70?>@0<8 15%, ?@8G5< 65=I8=K 2 2 @070 G0H5, G5< <C6G8=K. 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Grace 8 D. Graham (1952), 70?>@K <>3CB 2>7=8:=CBL B>340, :>340 G5;>25: A>18@05BAO 70=OBLAO B>9 ?@>1;5<>9, :>B>@CN >= @5-H8BL =5 2 A>AB>O=88. "8?8G=K5 2KA:07K20=8O ?0F85=B>2: -B> ?;>E0O ?@>D5AA8O, => MB> ;CGH55, GB> O <>3C 45;0BL; -B>B 1@0: =8:>340 =5 1C45B C40G=K<, => O =5 4>;65= 53> @07@K20BL; / 4>;65= MB> 40;LH5 ?>445@6820BL, E>BO O 7=0N, GB> O =8:>340 =5 1C4C MB> 45;0BL >E>B=>. !8BC0F8>==K5 ?>2>4K =081>;55 GQB:> ?@>A;56820NBAO C 45B59. 80?07>= 8E ?@>AB8@05BAO >B B0:8E 10=0;L=KE ?@8G8=, :0: AB@0E ?5@54 B5<=>B>9 8 E>;>4=K< BC0;5B><, 4> =5A><=5==> BO6Q;KE =0@CH5=89 >B=>H5=89 A 2>A?8B0B5;O<8. 045@6:0 :0;0 >7=0G05B 2;0ABL =04 <0B5@LN, => >4=>2@5<5==> MB> 8 A>E@0=5=85 G53>-B> F5==>3>; B0:>5 ?>2545=85 A2O70=> A @0==8<8 45BA:8<8 CAB0=>2:0<8 C?@O<AB20 8 >??>78F88 @51Q=:0. A8E>48=0<8:0. # 45B59 A 70?>@0<8 . Richter (1958/59) >?8A0; A;54CNI85 >1I85 ?@87=0:8. 1. 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D>@<8@>20=85 ?@82KG:8 >?>@>6=OBL :8H5G=8: 2 >?@545;Q==>5 2@5<O, C?>B@51;OBL 1>30BK5 10;;0AB=K<8 25I5AB20<8 ?@>4C:BK, <>65B 1KBL ?>;57=>9 4;O CAB@0=5=8O 7045@6:8 ABC;0. %>@>H85 @57C;LB0BK 4>AB830NBAO >BG0AB8 8 ?@8 ?@8<5=5=88 0CB>35==>9 B@5=8@>2:8. -&,/  / -<>F8>=0;L=>9 480@559 =07K205BAO ?>AB>O==> ?>O2;ONI55AO =0@CH5=85 <>B>@=>9 DC=:F88 B>;AB>9 :8H:8 A BO=CI8<8 1>;O<8 2 682>B5 8 A =5@53C;O@=K<8 2>4O=8ABK<8 8;8 A;878ABK<8 2K45;5=8O<8.  >A=>25 1>;57=5==>3> ?@>F5AA0 ;568B 38?5@?5@8AB0;LB8:0 8 2 A2O78 A MB8< CA:>@5=85 ?@>42865=8O A>45@68<>3> :8H5G=8:0; 2>40 @57>@18@C5BAO =54>AB0B>G=> 4;O B>3>, GB>1K ?@>87>H;> D>@<8@>20=85 :0;0, 0 >A>1>5 A>AB>O=85 A;878AB>9 >1>;>G:8 A?>A>1AB2C5B 40;L=59H5<C @0728B8N ?@>F5AA0. >=>AK <>3CB G5@54>20BLAO A 70?>@0<8. 7 >1I8E 60;>1 >B<5G0NBAO 3>;>2=0O 1>;L, CB><;O5<>ABL, A;01>ABL :>=F5=B@0F88 2=8<0=8O. 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eiereis, 1990]. >7=8:05B 2>?@>A, O2;O5BAO ;8 1>;57=L @>=0, :0: 8 <=>385 4@C385 B0: =07K205<K5 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:85 701>;520=8O 548=>9 1>;57=LN 8 =5 2:;NG05B ;8 >=0 425 1>;57=8  ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:CN 8 =5?A8E>A><0B8G5A:CN. 0A;C6820NB 2=8<0=8O =01;N45=8O, 2 :>B>@KE A ?><>ILN B5AB>2KE 8AA;54>20=89 C 1>;L=KE A E@>=8G5A:8<8 :8H5G=K<8 701>;520=8O<8 2 ?5@8>4 >1>AB@5=8O >1=0@C6820;8 45?@5AA82=K5 8 4@C385 ?0B>;>38G5A:85 ?@>O2;5=8O, 8AG570NI85 2 D075 @5<8AA88 [Leibig 8 A>02B., 1985]. -B> C:07K205B =0 B>, GB> A><0B8G5A:85 701>;520=8O B5@0?52B8G5A:>3> ?@>D8;O 8 8E ?A8E8G5A:>5 ?@5>4>;5=85 70A;C6820NB 1>;LH53> 2=8<0=8O, G5< MB> 45;0;8 ?A8E>A><0B8:8 4> A8E ?>@. @5>4>;5=85 1>;57=8 (coping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ormann 8 . Kordy, 1991]. <5==> =0 1>;57=8 @>=0 <>6=> B0:65 ?>:070BL, GB> 2=>2L 701>;52H85 2 >B=>H5=88 D>@< ?@5>4>;5=8O 1>;57=8 <5=LH5 >B;8G0NBAO 4@C3 >B 4@C30, G5< 1>;L=K5 A E@>=8G5A:8< B5G5=85< 1>;57=8. @8 ?5@2>=0G0;L=>< 701>;520=88 ?@5>1;040NB CAB0=>2:8 @5H8B5;L=>9 1>@L1K A 1>;57=LN, ?>445@60=8O 2 A515 <C65AB20, B>G=> A;54>20BL ?@54?8A0=8O< 2@0G0 8 B.4. @8 E@>=8G5A:>< B5G5=88 =5 B>;L:> =0ABC?05B A=865=85 ?>40B;82>AB8 : ;5G5=8N, => 8 ?>O2;ONBAO @07;8G=K5 D>@<K ?5@5@01>B:8 1>;57=8. AB@5G0NBAO A2>5>1@07=K5 ;8G=>AB=K5 G5@BK, 0 B0:65 45?@5AA82=K5 ?5@5@01>B:8 A 60;>ABLN : A0<><C A515, A CE>4>< >B :>=B0:B>2 8 ?0AA82=>9 B5=45=F859 : A0<>=01;N45=8N [D. Normann 8 . Kordy, 1991]. !8BC0F88 701>;520=8O 8 B8?K ;8G=>AB8. 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Hontschik (1987, 1988) =5>6840==>, => B5< =5 <5=55 C1548B5;L=> ?>:070;, GB> 2 ?>A;54=85 3>4K, ?> :@09=59 <5@5 2 5@<0=88, ?@8 >?@545;5=88 ?>:070=89 : >?5@0F88 ?> ?>2>4C E@>=8G5A:>3> @5F84828@CNI53> 0??5=48F8B0 G0AB> 8<55B <5AB> >H81>G=0O 4803=>AB8:0. "0:>9 >H81>G=K9 4803=>7 E0@0:B5@5= =5 4;O 2A59 ?>?C;OF88 <C6G8= 8 65=I8=, 0 3;02=K< >1@07>< 4;O >?@545;Q==>9 2>7@0AB=>9 3@C??K 65=I8=. >4 4803=>7>< E@>=8G5A:89 @5F84828@CNI89 0??5=48F8B 2 >4=>9 N6=>35@<0=A:>9 :;8=8:5 =5=C6=KE >?5@0F89 ?@>2>48;>AL 1>;LH5, G5< >?5@0F89 ?> ?>2>4C >AB@>3> 0??5=48F8B0. 0A 8=B5@5A>20;8 65=I8=K, 2 ?5@2CN >G5@54L 2 2>7@0AB5 >B 15 4> 25 ;5B. H81>G=>ABL 4803=>70 ?>4B25@640;0AL 38AB>;>38G5A:8<8 8AA;54>20=8O<8 ?>A;5 >?5@0F88. @8<5G0B5;L=> B0:65, GB> 0??5=4M:B><88 2A;54AB285 4803=>AB8G5A:8E >H81>: C MB8E <>;>4KE 65=I8= ?> ?>=545;L=8:0< ?@>872>48;8AL 2 2 @070 G0I5, G5< 70 2AN =545;N, G53> =5 =01;N40;>AL ?@8 ?@>G8E 0??5=4M:B>-<8OE A >H81>G=K< 4803=>7>< 8 ?@8 >AB@KE 0??5=48F8B0E. !>F80;L=K9 AB0BCA (?@8=04;56=>ABL : 1>;L=8G=>9, @01>G59 8;8 ?@820B=>9 :0AA5, >1@07>20=85, ?@>D5AA8O 8 B.4.) =8:0: =5 2;8O; =0 A>>B=>H5=85 >AB@>5 2>A?0;5=85 >BACBAB285 >AB@>3> 2>A?0;5=8O. ">;L:> C 65=I8= >H81>G=>5 2KO2;5=85 E@>=8G5A:>3> 0??5=48F8B0 =01;N405BAO G0I5, G5< C <C6G8=, >A>15==> MB> :0A05BAO 8=>AB@0=>:, 0 8<5==> BC@5F:8E, N3>A;02A:8E, 8A?0=A:8E, 8B0;LO=A:8E 8 4@C38E 65=I8= 87 AB@0= !@54875<=><>@LO. >;510=8O G0AB>BK MB8E A;CG052 ?> A57>=0< 8;8 <5AOF0< 2 F5;>< >BACBAB2C5B. 5B=85 <5AOFK 8 @>645AB25=A:85 4=8 O2;ONBAO, >4=0:>, :@878A=K<8 ?5@8>40<8 A 1>;LH8< G8A;>< 0??5=4M:B><88 ?> >H81>G=K< ?>:070=8O< C 65=I8= [. Hontschik, 1987]. B45;L=K5 =01;N45=8O ?>:07K20NB, GB> 2 >A=>2=>< @5GL 84QB > <>;>4KE 65=I8=0E, =0E>4OI8EAO 2 AB0488 ?>;>2>3> A>7@520=8O A ?5@2K<8 A5:AC0;L=K<8 :>=B0:B0<8, :>B>@K5 ?>?040NB 2 0<1820;5=B=CN :>=D;8:B=CN A8BC0F8N A A0<8<8 A>1>9 8 A> A2>59 A5<LQ9. >=5F =545;8, AC11>B0, ?@54AB02;O5BAO >A=>2=K< 4=Q< 1>@L1K 4;O MB8E :>=D;8:B=KE A8BC0F89 [. Hontschik]. @8 8<5NI59AO 0<1820;5=B=>AB8 <>;>4KE 65=I8= =081>;55 O@:> ?@>O2;ONBAO 701>BK, @52=>ABL 8 7028ABL <0B5@59 8;8 >BF>2 2 >B=>H5=88 4>G5@8. !><0B878@>20=85 A5:AC0;L=>9 :>=D;8:B=>9 A8BC0F88 A ;>:0;870F859 2 682>B5 >G5=L G0AB> =01;N405BAO C <>;>4KE 65=I8=, 0 ?>O2;5=85 1>;57=8 8 4803=>7 0??5=48F8B0 4;O 2A5E CG0AB=8:>2 :>=D;8:B0  MB> 2KE>4 87 ?>;>65=8O. !><=8B5;L=K9 4803=>7 E@>=8G5A:>3> @5F84828@CNI53> 0??5=48F8B0  MB> 2KE>4 8 4;O ?@0:B8G5A:>3> 2@0G0. 0: ?>:07K205B . Hontschik, 2 ?>;8:;8=8:0E G0I5 @01>B0NB <>;>4K5 2@0G8, :>B>@K5 1>;LH5 A:;>==K : M=5@38G=><C ;5G5=8N, 2:;NG0O A0<>AB>OB5;L=>5 @5H5=85 >1 >?5@0B82=>< 2<5H0B5;LAB25. . Hontschik >B<5G05B B0:65, GB> 2 XX 25:5 =5 B>;L:> <5=AB@C0F88 AB0;8 ?>O2;OBLAO @0=LH5. 7CG5=85 N=>H5A:>9 A5:AC0;L=>AB8 ?>:07K205B, GB> A@54=85 40==K5 > ?5@2KE 35B5@>A5:AC0;L=KE :>=B0:B0E 2AQ 1>;LH5 <>;>45NB. V. Sigusch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leuler (1979) :0: 7040G0 1C4CI53>, ?KB05BAO ?@>0=0;878@>20BL 48DD5@5=F8@>20==K5 A><0B>?A8E8-G5A:85 2708<>A2O78 <564C 459AB285< 3>@<>=>2 2 @07=K5 ?5@8>4K 687=8 8 G5;>25G5A:8<8 ?5@56820=8O<8 8 ?>ABC?:0<8. K >3@0=8G8<AO B>;L:> C:070=85< =0 7=0G5=85 4>ABC?=>AB8 : ;5G5=8N 2 @07=>< 2>7@0AB5 =0 ?@8<5@5 A0E0@=>3> 48015B0 8 =0 A><0B>?A8E8G5A:85 A2O78 ?@8 38?5@B8@5>75. !% + " !0E0@=K9 48015B  701>;520=85 >1<5=0 25I5AB2, :>B>@>5 @0728205BAO 8;8 ?@8 =0@CH5=88 A5:@5F88 8=AC;8=0 (-:;5B:0<8 >AB@>2:>2 0=35@E0=A0 ?>465;C4>G=>9 65;57K 8/8;8 ?@8 >B=>A8B5;L=>9 @578AB5=B=>AB8 ?5@8D5@8G5A:8E >@30=>2 : 8=AC;8=C. !53>4=O @07;8G0NB A;54CNI85 B8?K A0E0@=>3> 48015B0: B8? 1, 8;8 8=AC;8=>7028A8<K9 A0E0@=K9 48015B (!), 8 B8? 2, 8;8 8=AC;8=>=57028A8<K9 A0E0@=K9 48015B (!). =0G8<>ABL ?A8E8G5A:8E D0:B>@>2 8 ?A8E>D878>;>38G5A:>3> 2708<>459AB28O >1AC6405BAO =0 B@QE C@>2=OE: :0: MB8>;>38G5A:8 7=0G8<K9 D0:B>@, :0: ?@8G8=0 >AB@KE =0@CH5=89 >1<5=0 25I5AB2 8 :0: @50:F8O =0 701>;520=85 8 =5>1E>48<>ABL A0<>AB>OB5;L=>3> ;5G5=8O. -B8>;>38O 48015B0 B8?0 1 2:;NG05B 35=5B8G5A:85, 8<<C==K5 8 8=D5:F8>==K5 D0:B>@K (35=5B8G5A:0O ?@54@0A?>;>65==>ABL  28@CA=0O 8=D5:F8O  45AB@C:B82=0O 0CB>8<<C==0O @50:F8O), :>B>@K5 2 8B>35 254CB : @07@CH5=8N b-:;5B>:. >AB0B>G=KE 4>:070B5;LAB2 ?A8E>;>38G5A:>9 >1CA;>2;5==>AB8 1>;57=8 =5B [R. Surwit 8 A>02B., 1982; S. Hauser 8 D. Po"llets,1979; D. !>E 8 A>02B., 1986]. 5=5B8G5A:85 D0:B>@K 83@0NB @>;L 8 ?@8 48015B5 B8?0 2, => 8<5NB 7=0G5=85 ?@8 MB>< 8 ?A8E8G5A:85 D0:B>@K, >?>A@54>20==K5 G5@57 =0@CH5=8O ?8B0=8O (871KB>G=0O <0AA0 B5;0) 8 =54>AB0B>: 42865=8O. @56=OO 38?>B570 > ACI5AB2>20=88 MB8>;>38G5A:8 7=0G8<>9 48015B8G5A:>9 ;8G=>AB8 =5 ?>4B25@48;0AL [S. Dunn 8 J. Turtle, 1981]. A8E8G5A:85 D0:B>@K <>3CB ?@O<> 8 :>A25==> 2;8OBL =0 C@>25=L A0E0@0 C 1>;L=KE A0E0@=K< 48015B><. <5NI85AO 40==K5 A2845B5;LAB2CNB > B><, GB> ?A8E8G5A:85 ?5@53@C7:8 G5@57 2535B0B82=CN =5@2=CN A8AB5<C =5?>A@54AB25==> 2>7459AB2CNB =0 C@>25=L A0E0@0 2 :@>28 [L Pennings van der Eerden 8 A>02B., 1990; D. !>E 8 A>02B., 1986; V. Goetseh, 1989; G. Williams 8 A>02B., 1988]. Baker 8 A>02B. (1969) [F8B. Waadt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erger, 1984; P. Kronsbein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ecker 8 N. Janz, 1985; P. Herschbach 8 A>02B., 1990; D. !>E 8 A>02B., 1986; L. Pennings van der Eerden 8 A>02B., 1990]. >;L=K5 A0E0@=K< 48015B><  MB> E@>=8G5A:8 1>;L=K5 ;N48, :>B>@K5 <>3CB BO65;> @5038@>20BL =0 A2>Q 701>;520=85 8 ;5G5=85. -B8 @50:F88 <>3CB 1KBL >1CA;>2;5=K A>7=0=85< E@>=8G5A:>3> E0@0:B5@0 1>;57=8 A >AB@K<8 8 4;8B5;L=K<8 >A;>6=5=8O<8 (A8<?B><K A0<>3> 48015B0) 8 =5>1E>48<>ABLN A0<>AB>OB5;L=>3> ;5G5=8O. 5@2>=0G0;L=0O ?>AB0=>2:0 4803=>70 O2;O5BAO H>:>< 4;O <=>38E 1>;L=KE, >A>15==> 4;O 45B59 8 ?>4@>AB:>2, :0: 8 4;O 8E A5<59. !;54AB285< MB>3> <>3CB 1KBL 45?@5AA88, @0AAB@>9AB20 A0<>>F5=:8 8 7045@6:0 @0728B8O 845=B8D8:0F88. 0==K5 > ?A8E>?0B>;>388 C 27@>A;KE 1>;L=KE ?@>B82>@5G82K [S. Hauser 8 D. Poliets, 1979; S. Weyerer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erschbach, 1991]. 0: ?A8E8G5A:85 D0:B>@K 2;8ONB =0 ;5G5=85 48015B0 (?>40B;82>ABL), B0: 8 A0<> ;5G5=85 459AB2CNB =0 ?A8E8G5A:>5 A>AB>O=85, B0: GB> 7=0G5=85 <=>38E ?A8E8G5A:8E D0:B>@>2 ?@8 A0E0@=>< 48015B5 A;54C5B @0AA<0B@820BL 2 ?;0=5 8E ?A8E>D878G5A:>3> 2708<>459AB28O. A;8, =0?@8<5@, 2>7=8:05B 2535B0B82=0O =52@>?0B8O, B> C 1>;L=>3> =0@CH05BAO A?>A>1=>ABL 2>A?@8=8<0BL A><0B8G5A:85 ?@87=0:8 38?>3;8:5<88 (B@52>6=>5 2>71C645=85), 2 A2O78 A G5< >= =5 <>65B A2>52@5<5==> ?@8=8<0BL <5@K ?> @53C;OF88 C@>2=O A0E0@0 2 :@>28 [F. Strian, 1988; S. Waadt 8 A>02B., 1990). @C3>9 ?@8<5@ >B=>A8BAO : 485B5. <5NBAO C:070=8O, GB> A@548 ?0F85=B>: A 1C;8<859 2 2>7@0AB5 @8A:0 (>B 15 4> 22 ;5B) A0E0@=K9 48015B 2AB@5G05BAO G0I5, G5< 2 A@54=5< A@548 =0A5;5=8O. >6=> A515 ?@54AB028BL, GB> @5:><5=4C5<>5 1>;L=K< A0E0@=K< 48015B>< >3@0=8G5=85 ?@8Q<0 ?8H8 AB0=>28BAO D0:B>@>< @8A:0 @0728B8O 1C;8<88. ! 4@C3>9 AB>@>=K, 65=I8=K, 1>;L=K5 A0E0@=K< 48015B>< 8 AB@040NI85 1C;8<859, :0: ?>:07K20NB :;8=8G5A:85 8AA;54>20=8O, <>3CB :>=B@>;8@>20BL <0AAC B5;0 A ?><>ILN 87<5=5=8O @568<0 ;5G5=8O, 2 ?5@2CN >G5@54L ?@54=0<5@5==> 87<5=OO 4>7K 8=AC;8=0 [Schweiger, 1988; S. Waadt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B>G:8 7@5=8O ?0B>D878>;>388 ?@54AB02;O5BAO, GB> @53C;8@CNI85 <5E0=87<K I8B>284=>9 65;57K >B=>AOBAO : <5E0=87<0< B8@5>38?>D8-70@=>9 @53C;OF88 8 AB8<C;8@CNBAO M:AB@038?>D870@=K<8 3C<>@0;L=K<8 D0:B>@0<8 A B8@5>B@>?=K< 459AB285<, :>B>@K5 ?@54AB02;ONB A>1>9 0CB>8<<C=>3;>1C;8=K (LATS, B.5. 4;8B5;L=> 459AB2CNI89 B8@5>84=K9 AB8<C;OB>@). -B8 0=B8B5;0 A2O7K20NBAO A @5F5?B>@=K<8 3>@<>=0<8 :;5B>: I8B>284=>9 65;57K 8 2K7K20NB C25;8G5=85 ?@>4C:F88 I8B>284=>9 65;57>9 B8@>B>:A8=0 8 B@89>4B8@>=8=0.  A2O78 A MB8< =>@<0;L=0O @53C;OF8O ?>A@54AB2>< B8@5>84AB8<C;8@CNI53> 3>@<>=0 2 7=0G8B5;L=>9 <5@5 B>@<>78BAO. >MB><C AB0=>2OBAO =5A>AB>OB5;L=K<8 ?@54AB02;5=8O, GB> G5@57 38?>B0;0<>-38?>D870@=>-=04?>G5G=8:>2CN A8AB5<C >ACI5AB2;ONBAO ?@O<K5 ?A8E>D878>;>38G5A:85 2;8O=8O. A8E>48=0<8G5A:0O :>=AB5;OF8O. 5A:>;L:> 45AOB8;5B89 =0704 38?5@B8@5>7 >B=>A8;8 : G8A;C B8?8G=KE ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8E 701>;520=89 [F. Alexander, 1951]. 0;L=59H85 :;8=8G5A:85 =01;N45=8O 8 ?0B>D878>;>38G5A:85 8AA;54>20=8O ?@825;8 : 1>;55 >AB>@>6=>9 >F5=:5, CG8BK20NI59 ?@8G8==>5 459AB285 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8E D0:B>@>2. >A:>;L:C 2;8O=8O A@54K 8 8E ?A8E8G5A:0O ?5@5@01>B:0 B0:65 83@0NB 7=0G8B5;L=CN @>;L, ?@54AB02;O5BAO >?@0240==K< 273;O4 =0 42CEMB0?=K9 <5E0=87< [. Weiner, 1977], 2 A>>B25BAB288 A :>B>@K< ?@54@0A?>;030NI85 D0:B>@K <>3CB 459AB2>20BL A>2<5AB=> A @0==8<8 45BA:8<8 A5<59=K<8 2;8O=8O<8 2 ?@>F5AA5 ?@8>1@5B5=8O ?@54@0A?>;>65==>AB8.  >?8A0==>9 F. Alexander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am 8 A>02B., 1951] >;55 G5< C 1/3 1>;L=KE A 38?5@B8@5>7>< >1=0@C68205BAO 2K@065==0O :>=B@D>18G5A:0O CAB0=>2:0. >=B@D>18G5A:85 G5@BK :>=AB0B8@CNBAO 1>;55 G5< C 2/3 1>;L=KE, >B@8F0=85 8 2KB5A=5=85 AB@0E0  1>;55 G5< C 1/3 1>;L=KE. 4/5 1>;L=KE >1=0@C6820NB =0 ?@>BO65=88 2A59 687=8 AB@5<;5=85 =5?@5@K2=> 4>1820BLAO CA?5E0, GC2AB2> 4>;30 2 >B=>H5=88 A2>8E 70=OB89 8 @01>BK, GB> 4>2>48B 8E 8=>340 4> 8AB>I5=8O. # 65=I8= >B<5G05BAO ?>2KH5==0O ?>B@51=>ABL 2K25AB8 45B59 2 ;N48, 0 5A;8 C40ABAO, B> 5IQ 8 CAK=>28BL :>3>-;81>. 0F85=B:0 53 ;5B, AB0@H0O 4>GL 87 8 45B59 2 A5<L5 >48;0 4 45B59, E>BO =8:>340 =5 ?5@568;0 =8:0:>3> A5:AC0;L=>3> C4>2;5B2>@5=8O # =5Q 2A5340 1K;8 :0:85-=81C4L =0E;51=8:8 2 4><5 8, =5A<>B@O =0 2=570?=>5 701>;520=85 (B8@5>B>:A8:>7), >=0 4> ?>A;54=53> 2@5<5=8 2>A?8BK20;0 42>8E ?@85<=KE 45B59 0 ?>A;54=85 1 5 ;5B C =55 ?5@51K20;> 2 4><5 1 5 ?@85<=KE 45B59  A@54=5< 45B8 68;8 C =55 ?> 9 ;5B. 5 <C6 2A5340 1K; ?@>B82 MB>3> 8 3>2>@8;, GB> >=0 1>;55B 87-70 =8E 5 A>1AB25==0O 8AB>@8O 687=8 B0:65 ?@8<5G0B5;L=0. >;L=0O 2A?><8=05B A2>5 45BAB2> :0: ?>AB>O==CN 1>@L1C 70 2K6820=85, :>340 :064K9 3>4 2 4><5 ?>O2;O;AO =>2K9 @515=>: 8 2 10==K9 45=L >=0 =5 <>3;0 ?>9B8 2 H:>;C. 0: 8 ?@8 2A5E ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8E 701>;520=8OE >AB0QBAO =5@5HQ=-=K< 2>?@>A, ?>G5<C 1>;L=K5 @5038@CNB =0 2KA>:85 B@51>20=8O 687=8 =5 @53@5AA>< 8 ?0AA82=K< CE>4><, 0 =0>1>@>B, B0:8< D>@A8@>20=85< CA8;89. -B> 2>?@>A > ?A8E>D878G5A:>9 ?@54@0A?>;>65==>AB8 8 > B><, :0: >=0 D>@<8@C5BAO ?>4 2;8O=85< =0A;54AB25==>AB8 8 CA;>289 ACI5AB2>20=8O 2 @0==5< 45BAB25. -B8>;>38O. #G0I5=85 701>;520=89 I8B>284=>9 65;57K 8 1;87=5F>2K5 8AA;54>20=8O ?>:07K20NB 7=0G5=85 =0A;54AB25==>3> D0:B>@0. 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A8E>D878>;>38G5A:85 M:A?5@8<5=BK A ?><>ILN >=:>35==KE 28@CA>2 8?=5@0, CG0AB2CNI8E 2 @0728B88 @0:0 <>;>G=>9 65;57K, ?@>2>48;8AL =0 :@KA0E. =D8F8@>20==K5 :@KAK, =0E>482H85AO 2 A>AB>O=88 AB@5AA0, 701>;520;8 @0:>< G5@57 400 4=59 2 92% A;CG052, 0 682>B=K5 :>=B@>;L=>9 3@C??K, =0E>482H85AO 2 A>AB>O=88 ?>:>O,  B>;L:> 2 7%. D. Hoist (1991) A>>1I8; >1 M:A?5@8<5=B0E =0 BC?09OE  <;5:>?8B0NI8E @07<5@>< A 15;:C, >B=>AOI8EAO : A5<59AB2C ?>;C>157LO= >B@O40 ?@8<0B>2. =8 >18B0NB 2 .3>-0?04=>9 788, 682CB ?0@0<8 =0 B5@@8B>@88, :>B>@CN @52=>AB=> >E@0=ONB >B GC60:>2. A;8 2 ;01>@0B>@88 2 >4=C :;5B:C ?><5AB8BL 425 <C6A:85 >A>18, B> >=8 =0G8=0NB 4@0BLAO 4@C3 A 4@C3>< 8 C65 G5@57 =5A:>;L:> <8=CB >?@545;O5BAO ?>1548B5;L. > =5 2A5 A0<FK BC?098 @5038@CNB =0 A8BC0F8N ?@>83@KH0 >48=0:>2>. D. Hoist @07;8G05B 425 3@C??K ?@>83@02H8E: AC14><8=0=B=K5 8 AC1<8AA82=K5. !C1<8AA82=>5 682>B=>5 ?@>872>48B =0 G5;>25:0 2?5G0B;5=85 0?0B8G=>3>, 45?@5AA82=>3>. => 7018205BAO 2 C3>; :;5B:8, =5 G8AB8BAO, 53> H:C@-:0 AB0=>28BAO @0AB@Q?0==>9. 54:85 0B0:8 ?>1548B5;O >=> ?5@5=>A8B 157 A>?@>B82;5=8O. # MB8E 682>B=KE :>@0 =04?>G5G=8:>2 2K45;O5B 1>;LH5 3>@<>=>2. #65 G5@57 10 4=59 :>=F5=B@0F8O MB8E 3>@<>=>2 2 :@>28 ?>2K-H05BAO 2 4 @070 ?> A@02=5=8N A =0G0;L=>9.  @57C;LB0B5 <CA:C;0BC@0 >A;015205B, @0=K 706820NB EC65; A>?@>B82;O5<>ABL >@30=87<0 682>B=>3> ?> >B=>H5=8N : 2>71C48B5;O< 1>;57=8, 53> 8<<C==0O A8AB5<0 =54>-AB0B>G=K. ;8B5;L=K9 ?0AA82=K9 AB@5AA 8<55B A;54AB285< =0@CH5-=8O, 2>7=8:0NI85 =0 ?>G25 ?>=865==>9 A>?@>B82;O5<>AB8 >@30=87<0, 0 B0:65 ?>2KH5==CN 701>;5205<>ABL @0:><. !C1<8AA82=K5 ?>1564Q==K5 682>B=K5 2A5340 C<8@0NB G5@57 2 3 =54. !C14><8=0=B=K5 682>B=K5 @5038@CNB ?>2KH5==>9 0:B82=>ABLN. 82>B=>5 A;548B 70 459AB28O<8 ?>1548B5;O 8 8715305B 2>7<>6=>3> =0?045=8O 8;8 70I8I05BAO. # =53> 2K45;O5BAO 1>;LH5 3>@<>=>2 <>73>2>3> A;>O =04?>G5G=8:>2, A5@4F5185=85 CA8;8205BAO, 0@B5@80;L=>5 402;5=85 ?>2KH05BAO. KA>:89 3>@<>=0;L=K9 C@>25=L A>E@0=O5BAO 8 =>GLN, :>340 682>B=>5 A?8B 2 A2>Q< C1568I5. >AB5?5==> C =53> @072820NBAO ?>@065=85 A5@45G=>-A>AC48AB>9 A8AB5<K, ?>2KH5=85 2 2 @070 C@>2=O E>;5AB5@8=0 2 :@>28. "0:>9 0:B82=K9 AB@5AA ?>AB5?5==> ?>2@56405B A5@45G=>-A>AC48ABCN A8AB5<C. > MB8 682>B=K5, :0: ?@028;>, 682CB ;8HL =5A:>;L:> =545;L. D. Hoist AG8B05B, GB> 2 >1>7@8<>< 1C4CI5< 0=0;>38G=K5 40==K5 <>6=> 1C45B ?>;CG8BL C ;N459, ?>A:>;L:C A>F80;L=K5 8 ?A8E8G5A:85 D0:B>@K CG0AB2CNB 2 D>@<8@>20=88 2A5E 1>;57=59 F828;870F88. BGQB;82> 2KO2;O5BAO B5=45=F8O : 2>7>1=>2;5=8N :>=F5?F88 ACI5AB2>20=8O 42CE B8?>2   8 , >?8A0==KE ?@8 701>;520=88 A5@45G=>-A>AC48AB>9 A8AB5<K 8 ?>2B>@=> 2K45;5==KE 4;O E0@0:B5@8AB8:8 ?5@5@01>B:8 ?0F85=B0<8 >=:>;>38G5A:>3> 701>;520=8O [L. Temoshok 8 . Fox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hekelle (1981).  B5G5=85 1957 1959 33. A><0B8G5A:8 8 A ?><>ILN ?A8E>;>38G5A:8E B5AB>2 (MMPI) 1K;8 >1A;54>20=K 2020 74>@>2KE ;N459. '5@57 17 ;5B :0B0<=5AB8G5A:8< 8AA;54>20=85< 1K;> >E20G5=> 95% >B 8AE>4=>3> :>;8G5AB20 >1A;54>20==KE. !<5@B=>ABL >B @0:0 A>AB028;0 4,1%. # 701>;52H8E @0:>< 2KO2;5=>, GB> ?@8 ?5@28G=>< >1A;54>20=88 C =8E 1K;8 ?>2KH5=K ?>:070B5;8 H:0;K 45?@5AA88. 57C;LB0B A>>B25BAB2>20; A;CG09=>9 25@>OB=>AB8 (  < 0,001). @C385 D0:B>@K @8A:0 (2>7@0AB, :C@5=85, 7;>C?>B@51;5=85 0;:>3>;5<) ACI5AB25==> =5 @07;8G0;8AL. 5?@5AA82=K5 A8<?B><K =5;L7O 1K;> >1JOA=8BL A><0-B>?A8E8G5A:8<8 ?@>O2;5=8O<8 C65 8<52H53>AO, => 5IQ =5 4803=>AB8@>20==>3> : <><5=BC >1A;54>20=8O @0:0: A<5@B=>ABL 2 ?5@2>5 ?OB8;5B85 1K;0 =5 AB>;L 25;8:0, :0: 2 B@5BL5. ;8ONB ;8 ?A8E8G5A:85 D0:B>@K =0 B5G5=85 @0:>2>3> 701>;520=8O? <5@8:0=A:89 >=:>;>3 Rogentine (1979) =01;N40; 70 1>;L=K<8 A <5;0-=><>9 II AB0488 A ?>@06Q==K<8 ;8<D0B8G5A:8<8 C7;0<8. !=0G0;0 1>;L=K5 2> 2@5<O @07;8G=KE :C@A>2 A><0B8G5A:>3> ;5G5=8O 1K;8 >1A;54>20=K ?A8E>;>38G5A:8 2 ?;0=5 8E @50:F89 ?@8A?>A>1;5=8O. @8 MB>< A ?><>ILN >?@>A=8:0 CAB0=02;820;8, 2>A?@8=8<0;8 ;8 1>;L=K5 701>;520=85 :0: 1>;LH89 8;8 <5=LH89 =54C3, >B25@30;8 ;8 >=8 53> 8 M<>F8>=0;L=> >15AF5=820;8 8;8 ?@>O2;O;8 A8;L=K5 M<>F8>=0;L=K5 @50:F88. !8;L=> M<>F8>=0;L=> @5038@>202H85 1>;L=K5 G5@57 3>4 ?@>O28;8 <5=LHCN A:;>==>ABL : @5F84820<, G5< @5038@>202H85 ?CBQ< >B25@30=8O 8 70I8BK, :>B>@K5, :070;>AL 1K, ?@8A?>A01;820;8AL : 1>;57=8 157 70B@C4=5=89 (  < 0,001). 4=0:> >:070;>AL B0:65, GB> 4;O ?@>3=>70 8<55B 7=0G5=85 G8A;> ?>@06Q==KE <5B0AB070<8 ;8<D0B8G5A:8E C7;>2 2> II AB0488 1>;57=8: ?@8 =0;8G88 1>;55 7 ?>@06Q==KE C7;>2 :>@@5;OF8O A @50:F8O<8 ?@8A?>A>1;5=8O ?5@5AB0QB 1KBL >G5284=>9. 5:>B>@K5 02B>@K ?>4G5@:820NB, GB> >=8 =5 A<>3;8 =09B8 18>;>38G5A:>3> 8;8 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:>3> >1JOA=5=8O MB8E A2O759 A @50:F8O<8 ?@8A?>A>1;5=8O, 2 G0AB=>AB8, 2 ?;0=5 ?@8G8==>-A;54AB25==KE A2O759. L. Temoshok 8 . Fox (1984) 2 4>?>;=5=85 : =01;N45=8O< . Friedman 8 R. Rosenman (1959) >?8A0;8 B8?K ?5@5@01>B:8 <5;0=><=>3> 701>;520=8O  !, :>B>@K5 @07;8G0NBAO ?> :0G5AB2C ?@5>4>;5=8O 1>;57=8 (>B  : ! :0G5AB2> A=8605BAO). 1H8@=K5 8AA;54>20=8O (=0?@8<5@, Temoshok 8 A>02B., 1983) A<>3;8, :@><5 ?@>G53>, ?>:070BL, GB> 1>;L=K5 A B8?>< ?5@5@01>B:8 ! >B;8G0NBAO >B >AB0;L=KE =5 B>;L:> ?>B5@59 2@5<5=8 ?5@54 ?5@2K< ?>A5I5=85<, => 8 ?>402;5=85< >B@8F0B5;L=KE M<>F89 (48A-D>@8G5A:8E M<>F89).  B> 8 4@C3>5 :>@@5;8@>20;> A> 2@5<5=5< 2K6820=8O 8/8;8 G0AB>B>9 @5F8482>2.  ?>A;54=55 2@5<O, >A>15==> 2 A2O78 A C;CGH5=85< @57C;LB0B>2 ;5G5=8O 8 2 A2O78 A MB8< A C25;8G5=85< ?@>4>;68B5;L=>AB8 687=8 1>;L=KE, AB0;8 1>;LH5 C45;OBL 2=8<0=8O ?@>1;5<0< :0G5AB20 687=8 ?>A;5 >=:>;>38G5A:>3> 701>;520=8O. >;CG5==K5 40==K5 ?>:0 A;C60B ;8HL 4;O A>740=8O 38?>B57 8 =C640NBAO 2 ?@>25@:5 A ?><>ILN ?@>A?5:B82=KE 8AA;54>20=89. =8 A2845B5;LAB2CNB B0:65 > <=>38E, >BG0AB8 =587156=KE <5B>48G5A:8E ?>3@5H=>ABOE (=0?@8<5@, ?@>1;5<K ?>41>@0 8;8 >BACBAB28O :>=B@>;L=KE 3@C??, 2K?045=8O 40B 8;8 >H81>G=K5 2>A?><8=0=8O) ?@8 @5B@>A?5:B82=>< >?@>A5. > 40==K< A. Sellschopp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chmale 8 V. Iker, 1969]. !E>4=K5 A8BC0F88 >?8A0=K C 65=I8= A @0:>< <>;>G=>9 65;57K 8 C <C6G8= A @0:>< 1@>=E>2. -B8 38?>B57K =5 ?>4B25@645=K, >4=0:>, 4@C38<8 8AA;54>20B5;O<8, :>B>@K5 =5 =0H;8 C 1>;L=KE @0:>< =8:0:>9 @07=8FK ?> A@02=5=8N A :>=B@>;5< 2 B@02<8@CNI8E A>1KB8OE 2 ?@54425@88 1>;57=8.  <5B>48G5A:>< ?;0=5 A;54C5B 8<5BL 2 284C, GB> 4>AB0B>G=> G0AB> 8<5NB <5AB> ?@54GC2AB285 ?@028;L=>3> 4803=>70 @0:0 8 2K@065==0O ?A8E8G5A:0O @50:F8O =0 MB>.  38=5:>;>38G5A:>9 :;8=8:5 2/3 65=I8=, >?@>H5==KE ?5@54 18>?A859 <>;>G=>9 65;57K, ?@028;L=> >?@545;O;8 A2>9 4803=>7 [Schwarz, 1985].  ?@>F5AA5 :;8=8G5A:>3> =01;N45=8O 8 CE>40 70 1>;L=K<8, ?5@5=5AH8<8 >?5@0F8N ?> ?>2>4C @0:0 <>;>G=>9 65;57K, C <>;>4KE 65=I8= C65 2 45BAB25 G0I5 >B<5G0;8AL B@C4=>AB8 2 A2O78 A CB@0B>9 >1J5:B0 8 >1CA;>2;5==K5 MB8< AB@0E8. >:070=>, GB> C 1>;55 <>;>4KE 1>;L=KE >BGQB;8255 ?@>O2;ONBAO ?A8E8G5A:85 8 ?A8E>A>F80;L=K5 2;8O=8O [. Becker, 1979]. A5 8AA;54>20=8O 687=5==KE B@C4=>AB59, A?>A>1AB2CNI8E @0728B8N 1>;57=8, 70B@C4=ONBAO B5< >1AB>OB5;LAB2><, GB> <><5=B 2>7=8:=>25=85 8 ;8=8N @0728B8O 701>;520=8O, =0?@8<5@ @0:0 <>;>G=>9 65;57K, ?>:0 >?@545;8BL =52>7<>6=> [Fournier 8 A>02B., F8B. . Becker, 1979]. '0AB> C:07K20NB =0 B>, GB> 2 A>>B25BAB288 A C?>B@51;O5<>9 H:0;>9 >F5=>: J. Holmes 8 R. Rahe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reer 8 Morris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ecker, 1979], A 65AB>:8< 45BA:8< >?KB>< E>;>4=>3> >B=>H5=8O A> AB>@>=K 1;87:8E ?@8 @0:5 ;Q3:>3> [D. Kissen, 1966]. @8 MB>< 2>7=8:05B B0:65 2>?@>A, =5 >1JOA=O5BAO ;8 @5B@>A?5:B82=0O =530B82=0O 8=B5@?@5B0F8O A>1AB25==>9 687=8 2;8O=85< B@C4=>3> 687=5==>3> >?KB0 8 A><0B>?A8E8G5A:8<8 ?@>O2;5=8O<8 >=:>;>38G5A:>3> 701>;520=8O. #<>7@8B5;L=K5 >1>1I5=8O >1 0;LB5@=0B82=>< A><0B8G5A:>< 8;8 ?A8E8G5A:>< @53@5AA82=>< 2K1>@5 2 >B=>H5=88 @0:0 8;8 ?A8E>70 >A=>2K20;8AL =0 D0:B5 =87:>9 701>;5205<>AB8 @0:>< A@548 =0E>4OI8EAO 2 AB0F8>=0@5 1>;L=KE H87>D@5=859 8 45?@5AA8O<8. <5AB5 A B5< C:07K205BAO =0 C<5=LH5=85 ?>B@51;5=8O B010:0 8 2K?045=85 MB>3> D0:B>@0 @8A:0 @0728B8O @0:0 1@>=E>2 A@548 AB0F8>=0@=KE 1>;L=KE. 0B0<=5AB8G5A:85 =01;N45=8O ?@8 45?@5AA82=KE <>=>?>;O@=KE 8 18?>;O@=KE ?A8E>70E, :>340 1>;L=K5 3>40<8 =0E>4OBAO 2 A>AB>O=88 157=04Q6=>AB8 8 A0<>>B@5G5=8O, =5 >1=0@C68;8 ?>2KH5=8O 701>;5205<>AB8 @0:>< G5@57 30 40 ;5B [". Niemi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akagawa 8 Y. Ikemi, 1977] 4065 AG8B0NB, GB> ?CBQ< ?>2KH5=8O 2=CB@5==59 A>?@>B82;O5<>AB8 8 A>740=8O CAB0=>2:8 =0 0:B82=CN 1>@L1C <>6=> >:070BL =5:>B>@K< 1>;L=K< @0:>< ?><>IL. > A8E ?>@ 8<55BAO =54>AB0B>G=> C:070=89 =0 ?@>4;520NI55 687=L 459AB285 ?A8E>B5@0?88 2 1>;LH8E 3@C??0E 1>;L=KE @0:><. D. Spiegel 8 A>02B. (1989) ?@>A?5:B82=> 8AA;54>20;8 2 3@C??K 1>;L=KE A <5B0AB078@CNI8< @0:>< <>;>G=>9 65;57K ?@8 ?@>2545=88 3@C??>2>9 ?A8E>B5@0?88. >;L=K5 3@C??K 8AA;54>20=8O 2 B5G5=85 3>40 ?>;CG0;8 ?>445@6820NICN 3@C??>2CN B5@0?8N A B@5=8=3>< A0<>38?=>70 4;O A=OB8O 1>;52KE >ICI5=89. >;L=K5 :>=B@>;L=>9 3@C??K ?>;CG0;8 >1KG=>5 >=:>;>38G5A:>5 ;5G5=85. '5@57 10 ;5B 87 2A5E ?0F85=B>: 2 682KE >AB0;8AL B>;L:> 3. -?8:@87K >AB0;L=KE 83 1>;L=KE ?>:070;8 7=0G8B5;L=> 1C;LHCN ?@>4>;68B5;L=>ABL 687=8 (18 <5A) 2 3@C??5 8AA;54>20=8O ?> A@02=5=8N A :>=B@>;L=>9 3@C??>9.  >1AC645=88 02B>@K >A>15==> ?>4G5@:820NB 2708<=CN ?>445@6:C 2 3@C??5 1>;L=KE A >48=0:>2K<8 701>;520=8O<8, :>B>@0O 2K@060;0AL 2 >A>1>9 D>@<5 2>A?@8OB8O 8 ?@8=OB8O 1>;57=8. !;54CNI0O 7040G0 A>AB>8B 2 B><, GB>1K ?@>A;548BL ?A8E>;>38G5A:>5 7=0G5=85 2@54=KE ?@82KG5: :0: D0:B>@0 @8A:0. @54OI55 74>@>2LN 8 :0=F5@>35==>5 459AB285 :C@5=8O AG8B05BAO CAB0=>2;5==K<, 8 B5< A0<K< =0 ?5@2K9 ?;0= 2K428305BAO ;8G=>ABL :C@8;LI8:0. "0:65 CAB0=>2;5=0 A2O7L <564C 70?>@0<8 8 @0:>< B>;AB>9 :8H:8, >A>15==> C 65=I8=, 8 ?>MB><C 2>7=8:05B 2>?@>A > A8BC0F8>==>9, A>7=0B5;L=>9 8;8 15AA>7=0B5;L=>9 <>B820F88 7045@6:8 ABC;0. '  '  "( '! , ">, GB> 745AL 1C45B A:070=> > 1>;L=KE @0:><, >B=>A8BAO :> 2A5< 1>;L=K< A =587;5G8<K<8 701>;520=8O<8, =0?@8<5@ A ?@>3@5AA8@CNI8< @0:><, ;59:>70<8, ;8<D>3@0=C;5<0B>7>< (1>;57=L %>46:5=0), =587;5G8<K<8 E@>=8G5A:8<8 701>;520=8O<8 ?>G5:, 1>:>2K< 0<8>B@>D8G5A:8< A:;5@>7>< 8 4@. !<5@BL <>6=> @0AA<0B@820BL A @07=KE ?>78F89: :0: 18>;>38G5A:>5 O2;5=85, :0: <548F8=A:CN =5C40GC, :0: >A=>2=CN 40==>ABL G5;>25G5A:>3> ACI5AB2>20=8O 8;8 :0: ?5@A>=0;L=CN 7040GC D>@<8@>20=8O 8 >A<KA;5=8O G5;>25G5A:>3> 1KB8O. 040G0 2@0G0 70:;NG05BAO 2 CGQB5 2A5E MB8E 0A?5:B>2, >= =5 <>65B >D0=8G820BLAO >4=8< 87 =8E 8 =5 <>65B =8 >48= 8A:;NG8BL. -B> =5B@C4=> A45;0BL, ?@8=8<0O 2> 2=8<0=85 87CG5=85 18>;>38G5A:8E D5=><5=>2 8 <548F8=A:85 7040G8 ?@>4;5=8O 687=8. 5<0;> 2@0G59 284OB A2>N 7040GC B>;L:> 2 ?>445@60=88 8 ?@>4;5=88 687=8, 0 C =587;5G8<> 1>;L=KE  5IQ 8 2 =07=0G5=88 >1571>;820NI8E A@54AB2. AB0;L=K5 7040G8 >=8 >AB02;ONB @>4AB25==8:0< 1>;L=KE, A2OI5==8:0< 8, <>65B 1KBL, >1A;C6820NI5<C ?5@A>=0;C. =>385 1>;L=K5 GC2AB2CNB, GB> : =8< >A;01;5=> 2@0G51=>5 2=8<0=85, ?>A:>;L:C >=8 ?@54AB02;ONB A>1>9 157=04Q6=K9 A;CG09. 878BK 2@0G59 AB0=>2OBAO :>@>G5, 8=D>@<0F8O, :>B>@CN ?>;CG0NB >B =8E 1>;L=K5, 8AAO:05B, 8=B5@5A 2@0G0 : =8< C<5=LH05BAO. 4=0:> 2 =5:>B>@KE A;CG0OE ?@8 =587;5G8<KE 701>;520=8OE CAB0=02;820NBAO B0:85 B5A=K5 2708<>>B=>H5=8O <564C 2@0G>< 8 1>;L=K<, :>B>@K5 B@C4=> @07>@20BL. @0G 2 ?@542845=88 A<5@B8 <>65B 8 =5 >B:07K20BLAO >B A2>59 4>;8 >B25BAB25==>AB8 8 ?5@A>=0;L=KE >B=>H5=89, :>B>@K5 >= 4> MB>3> A>74020; 8 ?>4B25@640;. @8 MB>< >= =5 4>;65= 70:@K20BL 3;070 =0 B>, GB> 53> >B=>H5=8O A 1>;L=K< ?5@5H;8 2 8=CN ?;>A:>ABL. >?@>A > A>7=0B5;L=>9 A<5@B8 AB>8B ?5@54 2@0G0<8 =K=5, :0: 8 ?@5645, => C65 2 A2O78 A 2>7<>6=>ABLN ?@>4;520BL 8;8 A>:@0I0BL 18>;>38G5A:CN 687=L, =0?@8<5@ >1@K20O 5Q ?@8 8A?>;L7>20=88 @50=8<0F8>==>9 B5E=8:8 ?>A@54AB2>< >B:;NG5=8O 0??0@0BC@K. A;8 G5;>25G5A:>5 ACI5AB2>20=85 4> A0<>9 A<5@B8 8<55B A<KA;, B> D>@<0 A<5@B8 ?@8>1@5B05B 2 ?;0=5 >B25BAB25==>AB8 2@0G0 MB8G5A:89 E0@0:B5@. @8GQ< MB> :0A05BAO =5 B>;L:> @5;838>7=KE ;N459; ?@>1;5<0 >A<KA;5=8O 687=8 8 A<5@B8 2>7=8:0;0 2> 2A5 2@5<5=0  >B !>:@0B0 4> A>2@5<5==>AB8. B MB>9 ?@>1;5<K =5?@>AB> >B<56520BLAO ?> @07=K< ?@8G8=0<, E>BO 1K C65 87-70 >AB0NI8EAO 4> A0<>3> :>=F0 2@0G51=KE >1O70==>AB59 8 2>7<>6=>AB59 8E 2K?>;=5=8O. -B8 2>?@>AK A53>4=O >A>15==> 0:BC0;L=K, ?>A:>;L:C <=>385 AB0@K5 ;N48 ?@51K20NB 2 >48=>G5AB25 2?;>BL 4> A0<>9 A<5@B8 8 1>;L=8F0 AB0;0 =081>;55 G0ABK< <5AB>< A<5@B8. <5==> 2 A>2@5<5==KE :;8=8:0E BO65;>1>;L=K5 AB0=>2OBAO >A=>2=K< >1J5:B>< B5E=8G5A:8 >A=0IQ==>9 <548F8=K. @0G51=0O 45OB5;L=>ABL 87-70 H8@>:>3> ?@8<5=5=8O 0??0@0BC@K 4;O F5;59 4803=>AB8:8 8 ;5G5=8O AB0;0 :@09=5 >1J5:B82878@>20==>9 8 :><<C=8:0B82=>-@54CF8@>20==>9. ">, GB> 1>;L=>9 A0< <>65B A:070BL, ?@>O28BL A2>8 GC2AB20 8 A2>N 2>;N >B=>A8B5;L=> ?@>4>;65=8O 8;8 ?@5:@0I5=8O B5@0?52B8G5A:8E <5@>?@8OB89, =8:>3> =5 8=B5@5AC5B. <5==> 2 MB8E M:AB@5<0;L=KE A8BC0F8OE, 2 :>B>@KE 45OB5;L=>ABL 2@0G51=>3> :>;;5:B820 =0?@02;5=0 A0<K< 0:B82=K< >1@07>< =0 A?0A5=85 8 ?@>4;5=85 687=8, A0< 1>;L=>9 =5 <>65B CG0AB2>20BL 2 MB><. >A?@8OB85 DC=:F89 >@30=>2 8 A>AB>O=8O >1<5=0 25I5AB2 >:07K205BAO 1>;55 206=K<, G5< A>AB>O=85 GC2AB2 8 65;0=89 1>;L=>3>. >A:>;L:C ;5G5=85 @0:0 A53>4=O =0E>48BAO 2 @C:0E E8@C@3>2, @048>;>3>2 8 35<0B>;>3>2, 2>?@>A > 2@0G51=>9 701>B5 ?> >B=>H5=8N : >=:>;>38G5A:><C 1>;L=><C 2AQ 1>;LH5 ?5@5E>48B =0 ?A8E>;>38G5A:89 C@>25=L. @>1;5<0B8:0 B5@0?52B8G5A:>9 15A54K A 1>;L=K< AB0;0 2 ?>A;54=85 3>4K >A>15==> <=>3>AB>@>==59 8 :><?;5:A=>9 7040G59, :>B>@CN =5;L7O @5H0BL A ?>78F89 74>@>2>3> G5;>25:0 2> 2AQ< 5Q >1JQ<5 [W. Brautigam 8 F. 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Sellschopp, 1989]. @54;>65=8O ?> C;CGH5=8N ?>;>65=8O 1>;L=KE, >A=>20==K5 =0 1>;55 3;C1>:>< ?>=8<0=88 ?>B@51=>AB59 ?@0:B8G5A:>3> CE>40, :0A0NBAO 2 ?5@2CN >G5@54L A>:@0I5=8O ?@>4>;68B5;L=>AB8 ?@51K20=8O 1>;L=>3> 2 AB0F8>=0@5 8 ?> 2>7<>6=>AB8 1>;55 @0==53> 8=D>@<8@>20=8O 53> @>4AB25==8:>2 >B=>A8B5;L=> ;5G5=8O 8 CE>40 70 1>;L=K< (=0?@8<5@, <N=E5=A:0O <>45;L 4=52=>3> AB0F8>=0@0). <5==> A F5;LN C25;8G5=8O 4;8B5;L=>AB8 2K6820=8O ?@8 >=:>;>38G5A:>< 701>;520=88 >4=>2@5<5==> ?@>2>4OBAO ;5G5=85 8 @5018;8B0F8O, B@51CNI0O 4;8B5;L=>3> =01;N45=8O 8 701>BK 2 A5<L5.  >B45;L=KE A;CG0OE B@51>20=8O @5018;8B0F88 8 ;5G5=8O 2KE>4OB 40;5:> 70 @0<:8 A8BC0F88 @07JOA=5=8O 8 ?>445@6:8 ?0F85=B0 2> 2@5<O ;5G5=8O, E>BO MB> :070;>AL 4>AB0B>G=K< =0 ?5@2KE MB0?0E ?A8E>A>F80;L=>9 ?><>I8. A8E>48=0<8:0 708<>>B=>H5=8O @0G0 8 587;5G8<>3> >;L=>3> =>385 1>;L=K5 AG8B0NB, GB> 2 ?@>8AE>645=88 @0:0 206=CN @>;L 83@0NB ?A8E8G5A:85 ?@8G8=K. >;55 B@5B8 1>;L=KE @0:>< <>;>G=>9 65;57K =0@O4C A B0:8<8 2=5H=8<8 D0:B>@0<8, :0: ?>2@5645=8O, 2@54=K5 2;8O=8O 2=5H=59 A@54K, AG8B0NB ?@8G8=>9 1>;57=8 B0:65 ?A8E8G5A:85 :>=D;8:BK 8 ?5@53@C7:8, B>340 :0: 30% ?@>AB> @0AA<0B@820NB MBC 1>;57=L :0: =0:070=85 70 A2>8 3@5E8 8 >H81:8 [. Becker 8 . Janz, 1985]. -B> A2O70=> A ?@54AB02;5=85< > B><, GB> @0:  =5 B0:0O 1>;57=L, :0: 4@C385, GB> A0<> A;>2> @0:  MB> <5B0D>@0 4;O >?@545;5=8O 7;>:0G5AB25==>3> =5>4>;8<>3> ?@>F5AA0 8 B08=AB25==>9 AC4L1K G5;>25:0, 2:;NG0NI59 28=C 8 =0:070=85. >=OB85 @0:>20O >?CE>;L =5 B>;L:> 2 ?@54AB02;5=8OE 1>;L=KE, => 8 2 ?>;8B8G5A:>9 B5@<8=>;>388 >7=0G05B =51;03>?@8OB=>5 @0728B85 ?@>F5AA0 8 =54>?CAB8<K5 ?@><0E8. >;L=>9 @0:>< AG8B05BAO 28=>2=K< [Susan Sontag, 1978], ?@8GQ< G0AB> >= =5 O2;O5BAO ;8HL ?0AA82=>9 65@B2>9; @0==OO 8 A@>G=0O ?A8E>;>3870F8O 1>;57=8 <>65B AB0BL 2KE>4>< 87 MB>3> =5>1JOA=8<>3> 8 3@>7=>3> 701>;520=8O. =0=85 AC1J5:B828ABA:8E B5>@89 1>;57=8, 2 :>B>@KE D83C@8@CNB 2=5H=85 D0=B0788, B0:85, :0: ?@54AB02;5=85 > 28=5 8 =0:070=88 8 <038G5A:85 ?@54AB02;5=8O > 1>;57=8, 8<55B 1>;LH>5 7=0G5=85 4;O 2@0G51=>9 15A54K A 1>;L=K<. 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A;8 A>7=0=85 =5 ?>402;5=> 8A:CAAB25==> A ?><>ILN <548:0<5=B>2, 1>;LH8=AB2> 1>;L=KE 2AB@5G0NB A2>N A<5@BL 2 A>AB>O=88 ?@>A25B;5=8O. 0: ?>:07K20NB =01;N45=8O, >=8 =0E>4OBAO 2 OA=>< A>7=0=88 ?>A;54=85 14 G ?5@54 A<5@BLN. 0@O4C A >?8A0==K<8 . Kubler-Ross (1973) D070<8 8;8 D>@<0<8 @50:F89 C C<8@0NI8E 1>;L=KE ?>AB>O==> 2>7=8:05B 8@@0F8>=0;L=0O =045640. =0 2A?;K205B :0: A0<>70I8B0 4;O ?>445@60=8O ;8G=>AB=>3> D878G5A:>3> 8 ?A8E8G5A:>3> A>?@>B82;5=8O =5?>AB868<>9 A<5@B8. N48 =5 <>3CB 68BL 157 =04564K, 4065 5A;8 >=0 =5>1>A=>20==0,  MB> A2>9AB2> G5;>25G5A:>9 =0BC@K [. Plugge, 1954]. "0:0O 42>9=0O >@85=B8@>2:0 1>;L=>3> >?8AK205BAO :0: ?>2B>@=>5 >B@8F0=85, :>340 1>;L=K5 3>2>@OB, D0=B078@CNB 8 45@60BAO B0:, 1C4B> >=8 =8:>340 =5 C<@CB, E>BO >=8 7=0NB > A2>Q< 4803=>75 8 ?@54AB>OI59 A<5@B8. !<5@BL 8< ?@54AB02;O5BAO AC1J5:B82=> :0: 25IL =5<KA;8<0O. @8 =01;N45=88 70 C<8@0NI8<8 =5@54:> >B<5G05BAO, GB> <=>385 87 =8E ?@>O2;ONB B5=45=F8N : 8450;870F88 2@0G0, =045;5=8N 53> 2 A2>59 25@5 2 15AA<5@B85 DC=:F8O<8 B0: =07K205<>3> A0<>>1J5:B0. >7<>6=0 @53@5AA8O : A8<18>7C A >1J5:B><, =0?@8<5@ A B5< 65 2@0G>< [. Dreifuss-Kattan 8 F. Meerwein, 1985]. >7=8:0NB M<>F8>=0;L=K5 A>AB>O=8O, A2>9AB25==K5 <0;5=L:8< 45BO<, 2?@>G5<, 8725AB=K5 8 ?> 4@C38< 2840< B5@0?52B8G5A:8E 2708<>A2O759 (Rad,1983). 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Horowitz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A;8 ?@>8AE>48B ?@>@K2 2AQ 1>;55 ?>402;O5<>3> GC2AB20 3>;>40 A B09=>9 =>G=>9 54>9 87 BC<1>G:8 8;8 E>;>48;L=8:0, B> MB> ?5@568205BAO :0: ?>@065=85, :>B>@>5 ?> 2>7<>6=>AB8 A>E@0=O5BAO 2 B09=5 8 ?@5>4>;5205BAO ?>A@54AB2>< @2>BK 8;8 ?@8Q<0 A;018B5;L=KE A@54AB2. AB>@8O 8 M?845<8>;>38O.  52@>?59A:>9 8AB>@88 ;N48, AB@5<OI85AO : ?>EC40=8N, 8725AB=K 402=>, => MB> =5 @0AA<0B@820;>AL :0: 1>;57=L. IQ : @0==5<C A@54=525:>2LN >B=>AOBAO E0@0:B5@=K5 >?8A0=8O 3>;>40NI8E 65=I8=; 3>;>40=8N MB8E 65=I8= ?@84020;8 @5;838>7=>5 7=0G5=85 8 @0AA<0B@820;8 8E :0: 682CI8E 2 A2OB>AB8 [". Habermas, 1986]. ?;>BL 4> =0H53> AB>;5B8O ?0F85=B0< A 0=>@5:A859 AB028;8 A><0B8G5A:89 4803=>7 :0E5:A88 !8<<>=4A0 8;8 H87>D@5=88 :0: 2 A;CG05 -;5= 5AB, >?8A0==>< N4283>< 8=A20=35@>< (L. Binswanger). 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A:>@5 ?>A;5 ;5G5=8O >=0 2KH;0 70<C6, C =5Q B@>5 45B59, => 70:>=G8BL CGQ1C >=0 =5 A<>3;0, G5< >=0 8 ?>=K=5 >701>G5=0. "@C4=>AB8 2 >B=>H5=88 >1I5=8O A 4@C38<8 ;N4L<8 C =5Q 2>7=8:0;8 =5>4=>:@0B=>. =0 GC2AB2C5B A51O ;53:>2>71C48<>9, BO65;> ?5@5=>A8B :@8B8:C 2 A2>9 04@5A, >A>15==> BO65;K 59 27@K2K 3=520 C <C60. ! >BF>< C =5Q B5?5@L E>@>H89 :>=B0:B, >=0 A =8< >E>B=> >1I05BAO, => =5 >1@5<5=O5B 53> A2>8<8 701>B0<8. !2>8 ?@>1;5<K >=0 >1AC6405B A 65=I8=0<8, A :>B>@K<8 AB0;:8205BAO 2 45BA:>< A04C 8 2 H:>;5. 9 ?>=@028;>AL, GB> 2 ?@>F5AA5 ;5G5=8O >=0 ;CGH5 ?>=O;0 A2>Q 45BAB2>, A2>8 >B=>H5=8O A @>48B5;O<8 8 A2>8 A>1AB25==K5 GC2AB20. 9 ?>=@028;0AL 8 @50;L=0O ?><>IL, :>B>@CN <>6=> >:070BL ;N4O< 8 A0<>9 A515. -B> 8 B5?5@L ?>445@68205B 5Q 2 687=8. A. Crisp (1970) A>>1I8; 40==K5 :0B0<=5AB8G5A:>3> >1A;54>20=8O 100 65=I8= A 0=>@5:A859 G5@57 6 ;5B ?>A;5 ;5G5=8O; 87 =8E C 64 <0AA0 B5;0 =>@<0;L=0O, C 32 O2=> 8;8 A;53:0 C<5=LH5==0O, C 2 C25;8G5==0O; 2 1>;L=K5 C<5@;8. A8E8G5A:>5 A>AB>O=85 C;CGH8;>AL ;8HL C 55% 65=I8=. IQ 1>;55 2?5G0B;ONI8<, G5< ?@>AB> :>;8G5AB25==K5 ?>:070B5;8, ?@54AB02;O5BAO :0B0<=57 38 ?0F85=B>: 2 A@54=5< G5@57 5 ;5B ?>A;5 ;5G5=8O.  >B=>H5=88 <0AAK B5;0, ?0@B=Q@AB20 8 A>1AB25==KE ?5@56820=89 A>AB>O=85 ?>;=>ABLN =>@<0;87>20;>AL C 7, ;Q3:>5 C;CGH5=85 =01;N40;>AL C 11, A>AB>O=85 >AB0;>AL ?>GB8 157 87<5=5=89 C 9; 5 1>;L=KE C<5@;8; :0-B0<=57K 6 1>;L=KE =5 ?>;CG5=K [. Becker, 1978]. 081>;55 2K@065==K9 MDD5:B 40QB A5<59=0O B5@0?8O. Minuchin >B<5B8; 53> 2 86% A2>8E =01;N45=89, E>BO ?@87=0:8 C;CGH5=8O >?8A0=K AE5<0B8G=> 8 ?@8 >F5=:5 A>AB>O=8O 1>;L=KE >AB0NBAO A><=5=8O. >;55 >1>A=>20==CN >F5=:C A5<59=>9 B5@0?88 40;8 2 A2>8E A8AB5<0B8G5A:8E 8AA;54>20=8OE G. Weber 8 . 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BBC40 >=0 8 A>>1I8;0 > A515 (59 C65 30 ;5B) 8 A=>20 ?>?@>A8;0 > ?><>I8, B0: :0: >=0 =5 <>65B GC2AB2>20BL A51O 65=I8=>9, =5 <>65B =8G53> GC2AB2>20BL, A=>20 ?>EC45;0, C =5Q =5@53C;O@=K5 <5=AB@C0F88, 70?>@K, 2K?045=85 2>;>A, >=0 A=>20 <=>3> 4C<05B > 545, 5AB B>;L:> 8718@0B5;L=>, 2535B0@80=A:CN ?8IC, 0 70B5< C =5Q 2>7=8:05B @2>B0. 0F85=B:0 25@=C;0AL : 0<1C;0B>@=>9 ?A8E>B5@0?88 A @54:8<8 A50=A0<8, =0 :>B>@KE >1AC640;8AL ?@>1;5<K 5Q >1@070 687=8, ?8B0=8O, M<>F88 8 687=5==K5 A8BC0F88, 0 B0:65 5Q ?@8ABC?K @2>BK. >A;5 >:>=G0=8O ;5G5=8O 65=I8=0 >1@5;0 =>2>3> ?0@B=Q@0, A :>B>@K< A<>3;0 68BL 2<5AB5 8 @>48;0 74>@>2>3> @51Q=:0. !?5F80;8ABK ?> ?>2545=G5A:>9 B5@0?88 [H.-D. Basler, 1979] ?5@5H;8 >B ?@56=53> >4=>AB>@>==5 >@85=B8@>20==>3> =0 A0< <5B>4 ?>4E>40 A >?5@0=B=K< >1CA;>2;820=85< : 8=B53@8@>20==><C 2>7459AB28N. => 2:;NG05B =0 ?5@2>< MB0?5 ?@8<5=5=85 ?>2545=G5A:>9 8 >1CG0NI59 B5E=8:8, 0 =0 2B>@>< MB0?5  ;5G5=85, =0?@02;5==>5 =0 ?A8E>A>F80;L=K5 ?@>1;5<K. @8 B0:>< :><18=8@>20==>< ?>4E>45 G5@57 1 2 3>40 E>@>H85 @57C;LB0BK >B<5G0NBAO C 55% 1>;L=KE, C4>2;5B2>@8B5;L=K5  C 25%. 5?@>4>;68B5;L=>ABL :0B0<=570 8 <0;>48DD5@5=F8@>20==K5 :@8B5@88 @57C;LB0B>2, :0: 8 ?@8 <=>38E :0B0<=5AB8G5A:8E 8AA;54>20=8OE, >AB02;ONB @O4 >B:@KBKE 2>?@>A>2 8 ?>65;0=89. #/ (=5@2=0O 1C;8<8O, 1C;8<0@5:A8O) C;8<859 =07K205BAO ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:89 A8=4@><, E0@0:B5@87CNI89AO 2>;GL8< 0??5B8B><, ?@8 :>B>@>< ?>3;>I05BAO 1>;LH>5 :>;8G5AB2> ?8H8. 7 >?0A5=8O @0AB>;AB5BL 1>;L=K5 G0AB> A@07C ?>A;5 54K 2K7K20NB C A51O @2>BC 8/8;8 ?KB0NBAO >3@0=8G820BL ?@8Q< ?8I8, ?>ABOBAO, ?@8<5=ONB <548:0<5=BK 8 8=B5=A82=> 70=8<0NBAO A?>@B><. >;5NB ?@58<CI5AB25==> 65=I8=K 2 2>7@0AB5 >B 15 4> 30 ;5B.  1C;8<8G5A:8< AF5=0< 54K 8 @2>BK >B=>AOBAO 8<?C;LA82=K5 459AB28O =0 D>=5 2K@065==>3> 0DD5:B82=>3> =0?@O65=8O, >ACI5AB2;O5<K5 2 ?>;=>< >48=>G5AB25. 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"8?8G=KE ?>ABOI8EAO 1>;L=KE 0=>@5:A859 A 8E 1>@L1>9 8 8E ?A8E>?0B>;>38G5A:>9 :0@B8=>9 =5B@C4=> >B;8G8BL >B 1>;L=KE 1C;8<859. >A;54=85 8<5NB =>@<0;L=CN 8;8 A;53:0 C25;8G5==CN <0AAC B5;0, 8 8< =5 C3@>605B >?0A=>ABL ?>AB>2, 8=>340 ?@82>4OI8E 1>;L=KE 0=>@5:A859 : A<5@B5;L=><C 8AE>4C. ?8A0==K9 ?@8 H87>D@5=88 . 8=A20=35@>< A;CG09 -;5= 5AB >B=>A8BAO : =5@2=>9 0=>@5:A88, => =5 : 1C;8<88. -?845<8>;>38O 8 <548F8=A:0O 8AB>@8O 1C;8<88. >A;5 ?5@2>9 <8@>2>9 2>9=K 1C;8<8O C <>;>4KE 65=I8= >?8AK20;0AL :0: :07C8AB8:0, 0 2 ?>A;54=85 30 ;5B 2 ?C1;8:0F8OE 8 :;8=8G5A:8E >BGQB0E >=0 C?><8=05BAO 2AQ G0I5. C;8<8O 2AQ 1>;LH5 >13>=O5B =5@2=CN 0=>@5:A8N ?> G0AB>B5, => =5 ?> =5>1E>48<>AB8 2 :;8=8G5A:>< ;5G5=88.  A>60;5=8N, ?>:0 ?@8E>48BAO 4>2>;LAB2>20BLAO ?@81;878B5;L=K<8 40==K<8 > G0AB>B5 1C;8<88. 081>;LH55 G8A;> 1>;L=KE 2KO2;O5BAO ?@8 >?@>A0E =0A5;5=8O. "0:, 2 !( 10% 65=I8= 2 2>7@0AB5 >B 15 4> 35 ;5B >B<5G0NB C A51O 1C;8<8G5A:85 M?87>4K, => 8 MB> =5 >B@0605B 459AB28B5;L=>3> ?>;>65=8O. @8 >1A;54>20=88 3>@>4A:>3> =0A5;5=8O 1% 65=I8= C:070==>3> 2>7@0AB0 >:07K20NBAO ?>@06Q==K<8 MB8< =54C3>< [Fairburn, 1984].  ?>;8:;8=8G5A:>< >B45;5=88 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:>9 :;8=8:8 5945;L15@3-A:>3> C=825@A8B5B0 G8A;> ?0F85=B>: A 1C;8<859 2 ?5@8>4 A 1975 4> 1985 3. 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B<5G0NBAO B0:65 B5=45=F8O : B>:A8:><0=8O< 8 >?0A=>ABL ?@82K:0=8O : 0;:>3>;N 8;8 4@C38< =0@:>B8G5A:8< A@54AB20<.  0=0<=575 8 ?@8 B0: =07K205<>< ?>8A:5 ?A8E>MB8>;>38G5A:8E A;54>2 2 @0==5< 45BAB25 =5 C40QBAO CAB0=>28BL >1I85 4;O 2A5E 1>;L=KE B@02<K 8;8 CA;>28O >:@C60NI59 A@54K.  >B45;L=KE A;CG0OE >B<5G0NB C25;8G5=85 G0AB>BK 1C;8<88 2 A5<LOE 8 C >4=>O9F>2KE 1;87=5F>2 [Fichter, 1985]. > MB> C:07K205B ;8HL =0 B>, GB> 27@>A;K5 65=I8=K A >?@545;Q==K< B8?>< ;8G=>AB8 >A>15==> GC2AB28B5;L=K : A>F80;L=K< B@51>20=8O< 8 ?@>B82>@5G8O<, 8 MB0 ?5@53@C7:0 254QB : @0728B8N 1C;8<88. @54?>;>65=85 2 ?@>F5AA5 ?>8A:0 ?A8E>MB8>;>38G5A:8E A;54>2 [U. Koch] > =0;8G88 2 @0==5< 45BAB25 8;8 2 <;045=G5AB25 >@0;L=>3> >A=>2=>3> @0AAB@>9AB20  MB> @0AE>655 <=5=85 <=>38E ?A8E>0=0;8B8:>2, 8 >=> AB>;L 65 =54>:07C5<>, :0: 8 =525@>OB=>, 81> 2 B0:>< A;CG05 =C6=> 1K;> 1K A>3;0A8BLAO A :0:8<-B> 4@0<0B8G5A:8< 87<5=5=85< E0@0:B5@0 CE>40 70 @51Q=:>< 2 ?>A;54=85 45AOB8;5B8O.  F5;>< 1C;8<8N A;54C5B >1JOA=OBL A>F80;L=K<8 ?@>B82>@5G8O<8, 2 :>B>@KE 2K@0AB0NB A>2@5<5==K5 70?04=K5 65=I8=K. AA;54CO 8AB>@8G5A:85 CA;>28O ?>O2;5=8O 1C;8<88, ". Habermas (1990) E0@0:B5@87C5B 5Q :0: MB=8G5A:>5 @0AAB@>9AB2> 8 2 48DD5@5=F8@>20==>< 8AA;54>20=88 ?@>A;568205B :>@=8 MB>3> 701>;520=8O. = >?8AK205B B8?8G=K9 8 =>@<0B82=K9 :>=D;8:B A@54=53> 8 ?>74=53> ?>4@>AB:>2>3> 2>7@0AB0, :>B>@K9 8<55B >1I85 G5@BK C 2A5E 65=I8= A 1C;8<859. -B>, 2>-?5@2KE, CE>4 87 @>48B5;LA:>9 A5<L8 8 7040G0 @0728B8O A2>59 A0<>AB>OB5;L=>AB8; 2>-2B>@KE, ?@>1;5<0 @0728B8O 2 A2O78 A =5?@8OB85< A2>53> A5:AC0;L=> A>7@52H53> B5;0 8 :>=D;8:B 2 A2O78 A A5:AC0;L=>9 845=B8D8:0F859. -B8 ?@>1;5<K AB0;8 :@8B8G5A:8<8 =0 D>=5 65=A:>3> ?>AB?C15@B0B=>3> ?5@8>40 @0728B8O 2 XX 25:5. 5@8>4 N=>AB8 ?@54AB02;O5BAO :0: =5:89 ?A8E>A>F80;L=K9 <>@0B>@89, >4=0:> 8<5==> 2 MB> 2@5<O =0 G5;>25:0 2>7;0305BAO >1O70==>ABL B@C48BLAO 8 ;N18BL.  MB=8G5A:>< @0AAB@>9AB25 ". Habermas >1J548=O5B ?>=OB85, 2K428=CB>5 0<5@8:0=A:8< ?A8E>0=0;8B8:>< 8 MB=>3@0D>< 6>@465< 525@5 (G. Devereux), 8 =5:>B>@K5 8458 . -;80A0 (N. Elias), ?@5645 2A53> B578A > =01;N405<>< 2 ?>A;54=85 AB>;5B8O >3@0=8G5=88 ?>B@51=>AB59 2 A2O78 A @0728B85< F828;870F88, :>B>@K9 2 >B=>H5=88 1C;8<88, >4=0:>, >F5=8205BAO :@8B8G5A:8 8 48DD5@5=F8@>20==>. 5@28G=K5 A><0B8G5A:85 ?@8G8=K 1C;8<88 =58725AB=K 8 4065 =5 ?@54?>;030NBAO. "5< 1>;55 206=> 87CG5=85 2B>@8G=KE ?>A;54AB289 A A5@LQ7=K<8 A><0B8G5A:8<8 60;>10<8 8 A5@LQ7=K<8 87<5=5=8O<8. 0: A;54C5B 87 ?@8254Q==KE 2KH5 ?@8<5@>2, 1>;L=K5 >1@0I0NBAO : 2@0G0< ?> ?>2>4C A;01>AB8, 8AB>I5=8O 8;8 0?0B88, =5 C?><8=0O > A2>59 402=> ACI5AB2CNI59 1C;8<88. =5H=8< ?@87=0:>< 1C;8<88 <>65B A;C68BL >4CB;>20B>5 ;8F> A >BQG=>ABLN 2 >1;0AB8 A;N==KE 65;Q7, >A>15==> >:>;>CH=KE. @8 BI0B5;L=>< >1A;54>20=88 =5@54:> =0E>4OB ?>2@5645=8O 8 @C1FK =0 @C:0E, 0 B0:65 =0 =Q15, :>B>@K5 2>7=8:0NB 2A;54AB285 G0ABKE @2>B, 8 M@>78N 7C1=>9 M<0;8 87-70 2;8O=8O :8A;>3> A>45@68<>3> @2>B=KE <0AA. 01>@0B>@=K5 8AA;54>20=8O ?>:07K20NB A42838 2 A>AB025 M;5:B@>;8B>2, 45384@0B0F8N B:0=59 8 A=865=85 A>AC48AB>3> B>=CA0. -B8 2B>@8G=K5 A><0B8G5A:85 87<5=5=8O =5 O2;O5BAO C3@>60NI8<8 4;O 687=8, :0: ?@8 =5@2=>9 0=>@5:A88, => 8E A;54C5B 2>A?@8=8<0BL B0: 65 A5@LQ7=>, :0: 8 2B>@8G=K5 ?A8E8G5A:85 =0@CH5=8O. > <5@5 @0728B8O 1C;8<88 2=8<0=85 1>;L=>3> 2AQ 1>;LH5 70=8<0NB <KA;8 > ?>43>B>2:5 8 871530=88 ?>A;54CNI8E =>G=KE 1C;8<8G5A:8E ?@8ABC?>2. @8 @0AA?@>A5 <=>385 <>;>4K5 65=I8=K A>>1I0NB, GB> ?>GB8 ?>;4=O 8E 70=8<0NB MB8 <KA;8.  A2O78 A MB8< >=8 2AQ 1>;LH5 87>;8@CNBAO >B >:@C60NI8E, ?@5=51@530NB A;C651=K<8 >1O70==>ABO<8, CGQ1>9 8 4@C7LO<8. ?@>G5<, ?@8 1C;8<88 1>;L=K5 >B=>A8B5;L=> G0I5, G5< ?@8 0=>@5:A88, 8<5NB ?@>G=K5 A2O78 A 4@C38<8 ;N4L<8. > 8=B5@5AK : ?@>B82>?>;>6=><C ?>;C 2 ?@>F5AA5 @0728B8O 1>;57=8 =5C:;>==> C1K205B 2 A2O78 A GC2AB2>< 28=K 8 ABK40, AB@0E>< AB0BL D878G5A:8 =5?@82;5:0B5;L=>9 8 B.4. 8DD5@5=F80;L=0O 4803=>AB8:0. C;8<8N A;54C5B >B3@0=8G820BL ?@5645 2A53> >B 0=>@5:A88 A 1C;8<8G5A:8<8 ?@8ABC?0<8, B0: :0: ?@8<5@=> C 50% 65=I8= A =5@2=>9 0=>@5:A859 2>7=8:0NB ?@8ABC?K 1C;8<88. 5@54:> ?@8E>48BAO 2845BL, GB> 2=0G0;5 2>A?@8=OBK5 :0: 1>;L=K5 =5@2=>9 0=>@5:A859 65=I8=K A ?5@2>=0G0;L=>9 871KB>G=>9 <0AA>9 B5;0 2 40;L=59H5< >:07K20NBAO AB@040NI8<8 1C;8<859. ;O B8?8G=>9 1C;8<88 E0@0:B5@=> A>E@0=5=85 =>@<0;L=>9 <0AAK B5;0 8;8 8450;L=>5 ?@54AB02;5=85 > =>@<0;L=>9 <0AA5, :>B>@0O ;8HL A;53:0 A=865=0. 0AA0 B5;0 C 1>;L=KE 1C;8<859 G0AB> :>;51;5BAO, 8=>340 =01;N40NBAO ?@5E>4OI85 =0@CH5=8O <5=AB@C0;L=>3> F8:;0, => 4;8B5;L=KE 2K?045=89 F8:;>2 =5 1K205B. B3@0=8G820BL 1C;8<8N A;54C5B B0:65 >B E@>=8G5A:>3> =52@>70 A @2>B>9 C 65=I8= A 8AB5@8G5A:>9 AB@C:BC@>9 ;8G=>AB8, :>B>@K5 ?>402;ONB 2@0G59 8 >:@C60NI8E @0AA:070<8 > A2>8E @2>B0E, =8A:>;L:> 8E =5 A:@K20O. !B@C:BC@0 ;8G=>AB8 C ?0F85=B>: A 1C;8<859 8<55B B0: 65 <0;> 548=AB20, :0: 8 ?@8 0=>@5:A88, => E0@0:B5@87C5BAO 1>;LH59 G0AB>B>9 =52@>B8G5A:8E G5@B. '0I5 >1=0@C6820NBAO 8AB5@8G5A:85, G5< H87>84=K5 8;8 >1-A5AA82=K5, G5@BK, ?@5>1;040NI85 ?@8 =5@2=>9 0=>@5:A88. 5@5E>4>2 2 ?A8E>7K <K =5 >B<5G0;8, => =0@O4C A =52@>B8G5A:8<8 D>@<0<8 >?8A0=0 3@C??0 3;C1>:> ?0B>;>38G5A:8E ;8G=>AB59, C :>B>@KE @072820NBAO B0:65 0;:>3>;87<, =5:>=B@>;8@C5<>5 A5:AC0;L=>5 ?>2545=85 8 1>;LH59 G0ABLN 45<>=AB@0B82=K5 AC8F840;L=K5 ?>?KB:8 [A. Crisp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acey, 1985]. 2. @8 ?8I52>< ?>2545=88, ?@8G8=ONI5< CI5@1 >@30=87<C, =5;L7O 83=>@8@>20BL A8<?B><K 8 >3@0=8G820BLAO @0A:@KB85< =5>A>7=0==KE, B0OI8EAO 2 @0==5< 45BAB25 ?>2@5645=89. 0: 8 ?@8 4@C38E =0@CH5=8OE ?8B0=8O 8 D>@<0E =0@:><0=89, ?@>B82>?>:070=0 =5?@O<0O @0A:@K20NI0O ?A8E>B5@0?8O. 5B>4>< 2K1>@0 O2;ONBAO A8AB5<>F5=B@8@>20==K5, :>=D@>=B8@CNI85 8 AB@C:BC@8@>20==K5 2<5H0B5;LAB20 8 0:B82=>5 2545=85 ;5G5=8O, =0?@02;5==>5 =0 ?@5>4>;5=85 A8<?B><>2, ?@5645 2A53> 2 >3@0=8G5==KE 2> 2@5<5=8 D>@<0E. #A?5E ;5G5=8O AB018;878@C5BAO ?>A;54CNI8<8 70I8I0NI8<8, A>?@>2>640NI8<8 8 ?@8 =5>1E>48<>AB8 40;55 @0A:@K20NI8<8 D>@<0<8 ;5G5=8O. @8254Q==K5 J. Lacey (1985) 8 Fairburn 8 A>02B. (1986) :>=B@>;8@C5<K5 <5B>4K ;5G5=8O A ?>A;54CNI8< :0B0<=5AB8G5A:8< 8AA;54>20=85< 40;8 ?>;>68B5;L=K5 @57C;LB0BK, :>B>@K5 =5 1K;8 4>AB83=CBK ?@8 ?@8<5=5=88 4@C38E <5B>4>2 ;5G5=8O. Fairburn 8A?>;L7>20; 2 A2>59 :>3=8B82=>-?>2545=G5A:>9 B5@0?52B8G5A:>9 ?@>3@0<<5 2 :0G5AB25 3@C??K 4;O A@02=5=8O :>=B@>;L=CN D>:0;L=>-?A8E>0=0;8B8G5A:CN ;5G51=CN 3@C??C, 2 :>B>@>9 B0:65 8A?>;L7>20;0AL B5E=8:0 ?>2545=G5A:>9 B5@0?88, 0 @57C;LB0BK A@02=820; 2 ?@>F5AA5 ;5G5=8O 8 ?> :0B0<=5AB8G5A:8< 40==K<. A?>;L7>20==0O J. Lacey ?@>3@0<<0 >E20BK20;0 5 1>;L=KE A 1C;8<859, A :>B>@K<8 2 B5G5=85 10 =54 ?> =5A:>;L:C G0A>2 2 45=L ?@>2>48;8 8=48284C0;L=K5 15A54K 8 3@C??>2K5 A>1@0=8O, 2> 2@5<O :>B>@KE ?@>8AE>48; >1<5= >?KB><, 4020;8 @5:><5=40F88 ?> 485B5 8 2 F5;>< ?>>I@O;8 1>;L=KE >1<5=820BLAO >?KB>< 8 A>2<5AB=> 2K@010BK20BL AB@0B538N ?@5>4>;5=8O A8<?B><>2 8 ?;0=8@>20=8O =>2>9 687=8.  MB8E AB@>3> B5<0B8G5A:8E 15A540E ?@8=8<0;8 CG0AB85 420 ?A8E>B5@0?52B0. 07@01>B0==K9 J. 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Solomon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eter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ilverstone, 1970]. !2O7L MB>3> O2;5=8O A ?@8>1I5=85< : :C;LBC@5 C ?5@5A5;5=F52 >?8A0; A. Stunkard (1975). 5@2>5 ?>:>;5=85 ?5@5A5;5=F52 2 !( 1K;> >BO3>I5=> 2K@065==K< >68@5=85<, A;54CNI55, @>482H55AO 2 !(, ?>@065=> <5=LH5, 0 B@5BL5  5IQ <5=LH5. >;55 ?>4@>1=K9 0=0;87 [. 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Morris 8 A>02B., 1977; G. Maguire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eutel, 1988]. ;8ONB ;8 =0 ?@>3=>7 701>;520=8O E0@0:B5@ ?@5>4>;5=8O 1>;57=8, B.5. 0:B82=0O, >?B8<8AB8G5A:0O CAB0=>2:0, 0 B0:65 B0:>9 ;8G=>AB=K9 D0:B>@, :0: A?>A>1=>ABL 2K@060BL A2>8 GC2AB20, A>F80;L=0O ?>445@6:0 8 B.4.,  2AQ MB> 87CG05BAO 2 ?@>A?5:B82=KE 8AA;54>20=8OE [G. Budderberg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uthny 8 A>02B. (1986), =01;N402H85 70 100 65=I8=0<8 2 ?>A;5>?5@0F8>==>< ?5@8>45, >B<5B8;8, GB> 2 ?5@2>5 2@5<O ?>A;5 >?5@0F88 ?@5>1;0405B ?>78F8O >B25@30=8O 8AB8=K 8;8 CAB0=>2:0 B8?0 carpe diem  6828 >4=8< 4=Q<. IQ 8 G5@57 2,5 3>40 ?>A;5 >?5@0F88 C 1>;LH8=AB20 >AB0NBAO B0:85 CAB0=>2:8, :0: 4CE 1>@L1K, =045640 8;8 ?>:>@=>ABL AC4L15. > ?@8<5@=> B@5BL 1>;L=KE 5IQ 8A?KBK20NB B@C4=>AB8, >=8 871530NB @073;O4K20BL A51O >1=06Q==K<8 2 75@:0;5 8;8 ?>:07K20BLAO 2 B0:>< 2845 A2>5<C ?0@B=Q@C. 0640O B@5BLO 65=I8=0 AG8B05B, GB> ?0@B=Q@ ?>402;5= 5Q 1>;57=LN, => AB0@05BAO 1KBL 2=8<0B5;L=K<. >;>28=0 1>;L=KE 1K;8 4>2>;L=K >B=>H5=8O<8 A ?0@B=Q@><, 2 B>< G8A;5 8 A5:AC0;L=K<8. 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'5@57 1,5 3>40 ;5B0;L=>ABL 2 ?A8E>B5@0?52B8G5A:>9 3@C??5 ?> A@02=5=8N A :>=B@>;L=>9 1K;0 7=0G8B5;L=> =865, 0 G5@57 10 ;5B :0B0<=57 8 ?@>3=>7 >AB02H8EAO 2 682KE 7=0G8B5;L=> C;CGH8;8AL [D. Spiegel 8 A>02B., 1989]. @8<5G0B5;L=> B0:65, GB>, :0: 8 ?@8 M:AB8@?0F88 <0B:8, <=>385 65=I8=K 3>2>@8;8, GB> 2@0G, :>B>@K9 >1A;54>20; 8E, CAB0=02;820; 4803=>7 8 ?>:070=8O : >?5@0F88, ?>GB8 =8G53> =5 A:070; 8< > E>45 1>;57=8 8 >?5@0F88 8 2>7<>6=KE >B40;Q==KE ?>A;54AB28OE. -B> C:07K205B =0 206=>ABL @5:><5=40F89 2 15A540E A 1>;L=K<8 2@0G59 2A5E C@>2=59, 2 B>< G8A;5 A?5F80;8AB>2 :@C?=KE :;8=8:. !@548 >?@>H5==KE ?> ?>2>4C @07JOA=5=8O 8< ?5@A?5:B82K 8E 1>;57=8 >:>;> 20% 2>7;>68;8 28=C (F5;8:>< 8;8 G0AB8G=>) 70 >BACBAB285 MB8E A2545=89 =0 2@0G59. 5B@>A?5:B82=> 1K;8 C25@5=K 2 =5>1E>48<>AB8 C40;5=8O 65;57K 37% 1>;L=KE, :0B53>@8G5A:8 ?@>B82  15%, 0 31% 1>;L=KE A><=520;8AL. @8 MB>< >B@8F0B5;L=>5 >B=>H5=85 : >?5@0F88 8 ?>B5@5 <>;>G=>9 65;57K 4;O ?>A;54CNI59 A5:AC0;L=>9 687=8 ?@>O2;O;8 ;8HL =5<=>385 65=I8=K: 60% 8<5;8 C4>2;5B2>@ONI85 8E A5:AC0;L=K5 >B=>H5=8O, 8 MB>B ?@>F5=B 1K; 7=0G8B5;L=> 2KH5, G5< C 1>;L=KE, =0E>4OI8EAO =0 35<>480;875. 5@>OB=>, C ?>A;54=8E >1I5A><0B8G5A:85 8 2@54=K5 4;O =5@2=>9 B:0=8 B>:A8G=K5 25I5AB20 =5?>A@54AB25==> 2;8ONB =0 ;8184> 8 ?>;>2K5 DC=:F88. -!" &/ "    #40;5=85 (M:AB8@?0F8O) <0B:8 ?@8 38=5:>;>38G5A:8E 701>;520=8OE, ?@8 A8;L=KE :@>2>B5G5=8OE, 4;O ?@>D8;0:B8:8 @0:0 8;8 :0: @048:0;L=>5 ?@>B82>70G0B>G=>5 <5@>?@8OB85 >B=>A8BAO : =081>;55 G0ABK< 38=5:>;>38G5A:8< >?5@0F8O<.  0=359<5 2 1978 3. =0 100 000 65=I8= ?@>2545=> 407 M:AB8@?0F89 <0B:8; 30% 65=I8= 1K;8 2 2>7@0AB5 4> 40 ;5B.  !( G8A;> >?5@8@>20==KE 65=I8= 1K;> 5IQ 1>;LH5, => 2 ?>A;54=85 10 ;5B MB>B ?>:070B5;L ?>AB5?5==> A=8605BAO. 0;8G85 <0B:8 8 @53C;O@=KE <5=AB@C0F89 8<55B 1>;LH>5 7=0G5=85 4;O A0<>A>7=0=8O <=>38E 65=I8=. 45AL 83@0NB @>;L ?@5C25;8G5==K5 AB@0E8 8 ?@54AB02;5=8O > :0AB@0F88, ?>B5@5 65=AB25==>AB8 8 <>;>4>AB8, 0 B0:65 >?0A5=85, GB> 65=I8=0 =5 1C45B 1>;LH5 ?@82;5:0B5;L=>9 8 ?>B5@O5B 2>7<>6=>ABL =>@<0;L=KE A5:AC0;L=KE >B=>H5=89. >MB><C =5C4828B5;L=>, GB> ?>A;5 C40;5=8O <0B:8 4065 ?@8 4>1@>:0G5AB25==KE 701>;520=8OE G0ABK 60;>1K =0 45?@5AA8N, 8AB>I5=85 8 >1I55 =54><>30=85.  F5;>< 65 48DD5@5=F8@>20==K5 :0B0<=5AB8G5A:85 =01;N45=8O G5@57 3 3>40 ?>A;5 >?5@0F88 ?>:07K20NB, GB> 1C;LH0O G0ABL 65=I8= G5@57 =5A:>;L:> <5AOF52 2>72@0I0NBAO : ?@56=5<C A>AB>O=8N 8 ?@56=8< CAB0=>2:0<. >B@51=>ABL 2 >1I5<548F8=A:>9 8;8 A?5F80;L=>9 ?A8E>B5@0?52B8G5A:>9 ?><>I8 G@572KG09=> <0;0 8 :0A05BAO 2 >A=>2=>< B5E 65=I8=, :>B>@K5 5IQ 4> >?5@0F88 1K;8 A:;>==K : ?A8E8G5A:8< 8;8 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8< 60;>10<. 06=K<8 4;O ?@>F5AA0 1KAB@>3> ?@5>4>;5=8O ?@54AB02;ONBAO, 2 G0AB=>AB8, @07;8G8O 2> 2@5<5=8, :>B>@>5 70B@0B8;8 4;O :><?5=A0F88 2@0G 8 1>;L=>9 4> >?5@0F88, 2KOA=OO 2A5 70 8 ?@>B82 ?@8=8<05<>3> @5H5=8O. ;O B5G5=8O 1>;57=8 8<5NB 7=0G5=85 AB018;L=>ABL >B=>H5=89 ?0@B=Q@0 4> 8 ?>A;5 >?5@0F88 8 3>B>2=>ABL AC?@C30 ?@>25AB8 2<5AB5 MB> 2@5<O [A. Zintl-Wiegand 8 A>02B., 1989]. 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Bleuler, 4>A:>=0;L=> 87CG82H89 A2O78 <564C M=4>:@8==>9 A8AB5<>9 8 ?A8E8G5A:8<8 701>;520=8O<8, @5H8B5;L=> 8 >4=>7=0G=> >B25@30NB A0<>AB>OB5;L=>ABL :;8<0:B5@8G5A:>9 45?@5AA88 :0: =>7>;>38G5A:>9 D>@<K. <5@8:0=A:85 8 <=>385 52@>?59A:85 ?A8E80B@K AG8B0NB B0:65 =5?@02><5@=>9 =>7>;>38G5A:>9 548=8F59 8=2>;NF8>==CN 45?@5AA8N, :>B>@0O ?@54AB02;O5B A>1>9 M=4>35==> >:@0H5==K5 M<>F8>=0;L=K5 @0AAB@>9AB20, 2>7=8:H85 2> 2B>@>9 ?>;>28=5 687=8. >4>1=K5 4803=>AB8G5A:85 O@;K:8 G0I5 2A53> B>;L:> <0A:8@CNB =52@>B8G5A:85 G5@BK ;8G=>AB8 8 ?A8E>A>F80;L=K5 2708<>A2O78. !%!"'! //   !", $C=:F8>=0;L=0O !B5@8;L=>ABL  A8E>A><0B8G5A:0O !B5@8;L=>ABL !5<59=K5 ?0@K, :>B>@K5 E>BOB 8<5BL 45B59, => 1@0: :>B>@KE >AB0QBAO 15A?;>4=K<, AB02OB 206=CN 7040GC 4;O 38=5:>;>3>2 2 >1;0AB8 4803=>AB8:8, :>=AC;LB0F89 8 ;5G5=8O, CG8BK20O ?A8E8G5A:85 2;8O=8O AB5@8;L=>AB8 8 A2O70==K5 A =5N ?>A;54CNI85 ?A8E8G5A:85 ?@>O2;5=8O, G0I5 2A53> C 65=I8=. =0G8<>ABL ?A8E8G5A:8E D0:B>@>2 >F5=8205BAO ?>-@07=><C. @8 @5B@>A?5:B82=>< 8AA;54>20=88 2000 ?0@, 65;0NI8E 8<5BL 45B59, . (B0-C15@ [. Stauber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tauber (1984) :>=AB0B8@>20; 1061 A;CG09 15@5<5==>AB8 2 B5G5=85 =5A:>;L:8E ?>A;54CNI8E ;5B. @8GQ<, GB> A0<>5 206=>5, 2 47,2% A;CG052 15@5<5==>ABL =0ABC?8;0 157 :0:>3>-;81> ;5G5=8O: C >4=8E ;8HL ?>A;5 =07=0G5=8O A@>:>2 15A54 8 2 @57C;LB0B5 8E >6840=8O, 0 C 4@C38E ?>A;5 ?@54>AB02;5=8O >B?CA:0. 24,4% 65=I8= 7015@5<5=5;8 2 ?5@8>4 4803=>AB8:8, :>B>@0O >ACI5AB2;O;0AL 2 A>G5B0=88 A 15A540<8 > 15@5<5==>AB8, 28,65%  ?>A;5 B5@0?52B8G5A:8E <5@>?@8OB89. !@548 MB8E <5@>?@8OB89 4,3% <>6=> >B=5AB8 : ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8<. 5:0@AB20, 2@0G 8 =045640 >:07K20NB E>BO 8 =5A?5F8D8G5A:>5, => 2 MB8E A;CG0OE 206=>5 2;8O=85. !><0B8G5A:89 8AE>4=K9 ?C=:B 4;O A8BC0F8>==KE 8 ?A8E8G5A:8E D0:B>@>2 A;54C5B 8A:0BL 2 A0<KE @07;8G=KE >@30=8G5A:8E, DC=:F8>=0;L=KE 8 3C<>@0;L=KE AD5@0E. "@048F8>==> ?@840QBAO 7=0G5=85 0=>2C;OB>@-=K< F8:;0<, A?07<0< <0B>G=KE B@C1, 87;8H=59 ?>4286=>AB8 <0B:8 8 B.4., => A:>@55 A;54C5B >1@0I0BL 2=8<0=85 =0 3>@<>=0;L=>5, 2535B0B82=>5 8 8<<C==>5 @02=>25A85. !%!"'! !"+   " '  -!"   , "  !>25@H5==> =>20O 7040G0 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:>9 :>=AC;LB0F88  8A?>;L7>20=85 A>2@5<5==KE <5B>48: 3><>;>38G=>3> 8 2 ?5@2CN >G5@54L 35B5@>;>38G=>3> >?;>4>B2>@5=8O, 0 B0:65 ?5@2KE >?KB>2 M:AB@0:>@?>@0;L=>3> >?;>4>B2>@5=8O. KOA=O5BAO, GB> 8<5==> MB8 =>2K5 B5E=8G5A:85 2>7<>6=>AB8, ?@8 :>B>@KE >?;>4>B2>@5=85 ?>;=>ABLN >B45;O5BAO >B A5:AC0;L=>AB8, 2K7K20NB 1>;LH85 ?A8E8G5A:85 ?@>1;5<K. @5645 2A53> 708=B5@5A>20==K5 ?0@K 2KA:07K20NB 65;0=85 01A>;NB=>3> A>E@0=5=8O B09=K, 2 B>< G8A;5 ;8G=>3> 8 ?>AB>O==>3> :>=AC;LB8@>20=8O B>;L:> C >4=>3> 2@0G0, 0 B0:65 CGQB0 8E ?A8E8G5A:8E ?@>1;5< 2 :0G5AB25 206=59H59 ?@>AL1K. -B> B0 >1;0ABL, 345 =0AB>OB5;L=> =5>1E>48<0 A>2<5AB=0O 45OB5;L=>ABL 38=5:>;>30 A ?A8E>A><0B8:>< 2 @0<:0E :>=AC;LB0F8>==>9 A;C61K [W. Brautigam 8 U. Clement, 1989]. ?KB ?>:07K205B, GB> B@C4=>AB8 ?@8 35B5@>;>38G=>< 8 A>>B25BAB25==> ?@8 M:AB@0:>@?>@0;L=>< >?;>4>B2>@5=88 >6840NBAO A:>@55 2A53> 2 B5E A5<LOE, 2 :>B>@KE =5B ?>;=>3> 548=AB20 2 65;0=88 8<5BL @51Q=:0 C >1>8E AC?@C3>2. 51;03>?@8OB=> 459AB2C5B B0:65 =54>AB0B>G=0O C@02=>25H5==>ABL ?0@B=Q@0, ?@5645 2A53> :>340 8 157 B>3> A;01K9 2 A2>Q< ?>;>65=88 15A?;>4=K9 >B5F, :>B>@K9 18>;>38G5A:8 =5 2 A>AB>O=88 2K?>;=8BL A2>N @>;L, A>F80;L=> 4>;65= 5Q 2K?>;=OBL, => 5<C 2 MB>< <5H05B ?A8E>;>38G5A:0O A;01>ABL. !2>53> @>40 B5AB>< 4;O G0AB> A25@EF5==>9 >701>G5==>AB8 8<5BL @51Q=:0, ?>O2;5=85 :>B>@>3> 4>;6=> @07@5H8BL :0: :>=D;8:B ;8G=>AB8, B0: 8 :>=D;8:B ?0@K, O2;O5BAO 2>?@>A: >65B5 ;8 2K ?@54AB028BL A515 40;L=59HCN A>2<5AB=CN 687=L 157 45B59?. A;8 =0 MB>B 2>?@>A >B25B 01A>;NB=> >B@8F0B5;L=K9, =5>1E>48<> 40;L=59H55 2KOA=5=85 53> ?>4>?;Q:8. /, '"/   #   !" !2O7L A5:AC0;L=>3> C4>2;5B2>@5=8O A 2>7<>6=>ABLN 15@5<5==>AB8 >G5=L G0AB> O2;O5BAO 8AB>G=8:>< :>=D;8:B>2, >A>15==> 4;O 65=I8=K. 7-70 MB>3> >1KG=> AB@0405B =5 B>;L:> A5:AC0;L=0O DC=:F8O, => ?@5645 2A53> A?>A>1=>ABL 65=I8=K : ?5@56820=8N. =>65AB2> ?A8E8G5A:8E =0@CH5=89 8 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8E A8<?B><>2 <>3CB 8<5BL 2 MB>< A2>8 ?@8G8=K [P. Nijs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B5G5=85 =5A:>;L:8E 45AOB8;5B89 8AA;54>20B5;8 ?KB0NBAO >1JOA=8BL A ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8E ?>78F89 ?@82KG=K5 2K:84KH8 :0: ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:>5 @07@5H5=85 :>=D;8:B0, :0A0NI53>AO ?@>1;5< 65=AB25==>AB8 8 <0B5@8=AB20 [Deutsch, 1954] =0 ?@5M48?>2>< 8;8 M48?>2>< C@>2=5 [Peins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ertz 8 . 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indberg 8 Lindberg, 1988]. $ / =>3>>1@07=K5 D>@<K D81@><80;388, 2 B>< G8A;5 A8=4@>< D81@>-78B0, @52<0B87< <O3:8E B:0=59, 8;8 DC=:F8>=0;L=K9 <KH5G=K9 @52<0B87<, >?8A0=K ?>4 @07=K<8 =0720=8O<8: <80;38O, 1>;8 2=87C A?8=K, ?@>AB@5;, 6QAB:85 ;>?0B:8.  >B;8G85 >B >@30=8G5A:8E @52<0B8G5A:8E 701>;520=89 >=8 8<5NB 87<5=G82K5 ;>:0;870F8N 8 A8<?B><0B8:C, ?@8GQ< >BACBAB2CNB >1J5:B82=K5 ?@87=0:8 2>A?0;5=8O. 081>;55 G0AB0O ;>:0;870F8O A8<?B><>2  ?>OA=8F0 8 ?;5G570BK;>G-=0O >1;0ABL. @8 18>?A88 1>;57=5==K5 <KH5G=K5 70B25@45=8O >?@545;ONBAO :0: @50:B82=0O 38?>:A8O <KH5G=KE :;5B>:: E ?@8G8=0 70:;NG05BAO 2 =5@2=>< 2>71C645=88, :>B>@>5 2K7K20NB @07=K5 D0:B>@K, 2 B>< G8A;5 8 ?A8E8G5A:85 [. Fassbender, 1975].  ?A8E8G5A:>< A>AB>O=88 >BGQB;82> 2K@065=K ?5@56820=8O AB@0E0 8 45?@5AA88. >;L=K5 A <KH5G=K< @52<0B87<>< <0;> A:;>==K : 38?5@:><?5=A8@>20==><C ?>2545=8N. E ;0B5=B=K5 8;8 O2=K5 65;0=8O, 701>BK 8 B5=45=F88 : 7028A8<>AB8 O@:> 2K@065=K, >BGQB;82> >?@545;O5BAO A:;>==>ABL : A0<>?>65@B2>20=8N 8 7028A8<>AB8. ?8A0= :>=D;8:B <564C A0<>?>65@B2>20=85< 8 AB018;L=>ABLN, 65@B25==>ABLN 8 M3>87<><, :@>B>ABLN 8 03@5AA82=>ABLN. -<>F8>=0;L=K5 A>AB>O=8O, ?@5645 2A53> AB@0E 8 45?@5AA8O, 2KB5A=ONBAO <5=LH5. "0:8E 1>;L=KE <>6=> A@02=820BL A 1>:AQ@0<8 ?5@54 C40@>< 3>=30, A 153C=0<8 ?5@54 AB0@B><, :>340 3>B>2=>ABL 4>;3> =5 @50;87C5BAO. @8 A:;>==>AB8 : A0<>?>65@B2>20=8N 8 7028A8<>AB8 G0AB> <>6=> 2KO28BL =0;8G85 @5=B=KE CAB0=>2>:.  :0G5AB25 @07@5H0NI59 A8BC0F88 >?8AK20NB 1>;LH59 G0ABLN B0:CN, :>B>@0O 2K7K205B <>18;870F8N 2A53> B5;0, >A>15==> ?@8 03@5AA82=KE 8<?C;LA0E. W. Grace 8 D. 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'5@57 =5A:>;L:> ;5B ?>A;5 ;5G5=8O >= 65=8;AO, @01>B05B AB>;O@>< =0 3>AC40@AB25==>< ?@54?@8OB88. # =53> A>E@0=O5BAO >?@545;Q==0O ?@54C1564Q==>ABL ?@>B82 >B80 8 ?@>B82 1K2H53> E>7O8=0, => >= >B =5Q 2=CB@5==5 >BAB@0=O5BAO.  ?;0=5 MB8>;>388 8 ?A8E>48=0<8:8 >G5284=>, GB> 8<5==> 2 MB>9 3@C??5 1>;57=59 E0@0:B5@8AB8:0 @0AAB@>9AB20 :0: >@30=8G5A:>3> 8;8 ?A8E8G5A:>3> 2 :0G5AB25 0;LB5@=0B82K A><=8B5;L=0. -=F5D0;8B8G5A:85 ?>@065=8O O45@ M:AB@0?8@0<84=>9 A8AB5<K >1=0@C6820;8AL 2 B5G5=85 45AOB8;5B89 ?>A;5 ?5@2>9 <8@>2>9 2>9=K [W. Brautigam, 1954], :@><5 B>3>, A;54C5B 4C<0BL > ?5@8=0B0;L=KE B@02<0E 8 A>AC48ABKE ?>@065=8OE, :>B>@K5 >?@545;ONB A>G5B0=85 A8<?B><>2. -B> =5 >7=0G05B, GB> 2>7=8:=>25=85 8 B5G5=85 701>;520=8O =5 7028AOB >B 2=5H=8E 2;8O=89. >B>2=>ABL : @5038@>20=8N >@30=87<0 >?@545;O5BAO 8 ?>445@68205BAO 687=5==K<8 ?5@56820=8O<8 8 =52@>B8G5A:8<8 :>=D;8:B0<8. 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"0:>5 B>;:>20=85 =0 A8<2>;8G5A:>< C@>2=5 8 C@>2=5 2K@065=8O, :>B>@>5 2 A>>B25BAB288 A ?A8E>;>3859 =52@>7>2 A>>B25BAB2>20;> 1K 8AB5@8G5A:><C A8<-?B><>>1@07>20=8N, :065BAO =0< =54>AB0B>G=K<, ?>A:>;L:C ?@8 :@82>H55 A;54C5B CG8BK20BL D>@<>>1@07>20=85, 2K1>@ >@30=0. >MB><C A>548=5=85 A8BC0F8>==KE 8 :>3=8B82=KE D0:B>@>2, :>B>@K5 83@0NB 206=CN @>;L 2 ?>O2;5=88 A8<?B><0B8:8 8 5Q @0728B88, =5 A;54C5B =54>>F5=820BL, B0: 65 :0: 8 >1I55 7=0G5=85 ?A8E8G5A:>3> 8 2535B0B82=>3> C@>2=59 2>71C645=8O, 0 B0:65 B5@0?52B8G5A:>5 7=0G5=85 =0?@O65=8O 8 53> @07@O4:8, C25@5==>AB8 2 A515 8 =5C25@5==>AB8 2 8E 2708<>2;8O=88 2 ?@>F5AA5 1>;57=8. 0@8015;L=>ABL ?@>O2;5=89 :@82>H58 ?>4 459AB285< @07;8G=KE C;>2>: 8 ?@8Q<>2 8 7028A8<>ABL 5Q >B ?>;>65=8O 1>;L=>3> 2 ?><5I5=88, 157 A><=5=8O, C:07K20NB =0 B>, GB> A8<?B><0B8:0 1>;57=8 2 5Q ?>;=>< @0728B88 >?@545;O5BAO B0:65 ?>;>65=85< AC1J5:B0 2 A2>Q< >:@C65=88.  ?@O<>< ?>;>65=88, 2 A8BC0F88 ?@O<> AB>OI53> G5;>25:0, :>B>@K9 >48= ?@>B82>AB>8B 2A5< >1J5:B0< [. Straus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itsherlich, 1971]. @8 >F5=:5 @57C;LB0B>2 ;5G5=8O 206=K 4;8B5;L=K5 :0B0<=5AB8G5A:85 =01;N45=8O, B0: :0: 8 A?>=B0==>5 B5G5=85 <>65B 1KBL 2>;=>>1@07=K<  A C;CGH5=8O<8 8 CEC4H5=8O<8. # =5:>B>@KE 1>;L=KE 2>>1I5 =5B ?>:070=89 : @0A:@K20NI59 B5@0?88. #?@06=ONI0O <5B>48:0 <0;>MDD5:B82=0, <548:0<5=BK (30;-4>;) ?><>30NB ;8HL 2 >B45;L=KE A;CG0OE. 0: 8 ?@8 4@C38E M:AB@0?8@0<84=KE =0@CH5=8OE, 2 >B45;L=KE A;CG0OE ?>:070=> AB5@5>B0:A8G5A:>5 ;5G5=85  ?@5645 2A53> ?@8<5=O5<K5 =K=5 ;>:0;L=K5 8=J5:F88 1>BC-;8=8G5A:>3> B>:A8=0, :>B>@K5 ?@82>4OB : C;CGH5=8N A>AB>O=8O, E>BO 8 <>3CB >:07K20BL 459AB285 =0 =5@2=CN A8AB5<C, 2 A2O78 A G5< =5>1E>48<> 40;L=59H55 87CG5=85 ?@>4>;68B5;L=>AB8 ;5G51=>3> MDD5:B0. !' ! 8AG8< A?07<><, 8;8 ?8AG59 AC4>@>3>9, =07K20NB =5?@>872>;L=>5 B>=8G5A:>5 AC4>@>6=>5 A>:@0I5=85 <KHF @C:8 ?@8 ?8AL<5. 0@CH0NBAO >?@545;Q==K5 A8=5@38G=K5 8 >G5=L 48DD5@5=F8@>20==K5 42865=8O, :>B>@K5 1K;8 70CG5=K ?CBQ< BI0B5;L=KE C?@06=5=89, 0 ?@8 701>;520=88 MB0 48DD5@5=F8@>2:0 CB@0G8205BAO. 0@O4C A :8ABLN @C:8 <>3CB ?>@060BLAO 2AO @C:0 8 4065 ?;5G>. 0@CH5=85 <>65B @0A?@>AB@0=OBLAO 8 =0 4@C385 48DD5@5=F8@>20==K5 284K 42865=8O (540, ?8BLQ, 1@8BLQ), :>B>@K5 B5< =5 <5=55 <>3CB 4>;3> =5 70B@03820BLAO. # =5:>B>@KE 1>;L=KE MB> =0@CH5=85 <>65B =5 2>7=8:0BL ?@8 AB5=>3@0D8@>20=88. 8AG89 A?07< B0:65 >?@545;O5BAO :0: ?@>D5AA8>=0;L=K9 =52@>7.  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Straus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chors, 1987]. @>3@5AA 2 4803=>AB8:5 8 ?@8<5=5=85 <5B>48:, A>740NI8E 87>1@065=85 (:><?LNB5@=0O B><>3@0D8O), C25;8G8;8 =5>?@545;Q==>ABL 5IQ 1>;LH5. :070;>AL, GB> ?@8 2K?OG820=88 <56?>72>=:>2KE 48A:>2 <>65B 2>7=8:0BL A?>=B0==>5 C;CGH5=85 8 =5 A;54C5B B>@>?8BLAO A >?5@0F859. >;52K5 >ICI5=8O 2 A?8=5  >4=0 87 =081>;55 G0ABKE ?@8G8= CE>40 =0 ?5=A8N; 16,5% 2A5E 4>A@>G=KE ?5=A8>=5@>2 2 1987 3. 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olfersdorf 8 A>02B., 1988; . Kuhs, 1990]. !!" !" !'#!"/  ) !%!"'! !  (>1I89 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:89 A8=4@><, DC=:F8>=0;L=K5 =0@CH5=8O, 2535B0B82=K9 A8=4@>< 8AB>I5=8O, ?A8E>2535B0B82=K9 A8=4@><, 2535B0B82=0O 48AB>=8O) "5@<8=>< >1I89 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:89 A8=4@>< >?@545;O5BAO 1>;LH59 G0ABLN ?>;8A8<?B><=0O, ?@58<CI5AB25==> A><0B8G5A:0O :0@B8=0 1>;57=5==KE ?5@56820=89, :>B>@0O =5 8<55B >@30=8G5A:>9 >A=>2K. -B> A>AB>O=85 A2O70=>, A >4=>9 AB>@>=K, A =0@CH5=85< A0<>GC2AB28O 8 ;8G=>AB=K<8 D0:B>@0<8, 0 A 4@C3>9  A 2=5H=8<8 D0:B>@0<8, =0?@8<5@ A> A;C651=K<8 B@C4=>ABO<8. 0 ?5@2K9 ?;0= 2KABC?05B B5=45=F8O : A><0B870F88 A CE>4>< >B @50;L=KE B@C4=>AB59, ?@8GQ< >A>1>3> 2=8<0=8O 70A;C68205B 0DD5:B82=>5 A>AB>O=85 1>;L=>3>. @54@5H5=85 70;>65=> C65 2 B><, :0: =07K20NB MB8 @0AAB@>9AB20: ?@8 2535B0B82=>9 48AB>=88, DC=:F8>=0;L=>< A8=4@><5 8 B.4. =0 ?5@2K9 ?;0= 2KABC?05B 0=0B><8G5A:89 AC1AB@0B, B.5. ?>@065=85 B>3> 8;8 8=>3> >@30=0, 0 ?@8 =52@>B87<5  B>;L:> 87<5=Q==K5 G5@BK ;8G=>AB8. <5AB> MB>3> 2 =0720=88 1>;57=8 A;54C5B >B@078BL 687=5==CN 8 4CH52=CN A8BC0F8N 1>;L=>3>. @30=>F5=B@8G5A:>5 ?>=OB85 2535B0B82=0O 48AB>=8O, :>B>@K< B@048F8>==> ?>;L7CNBAO 2@0G8, =5 CG8BK205B A>F80;L=CN 8 4CH52=CN AB>@>=C 1>;57=8 ?@8 MB8E @0AAB@>9AB20E. ">;L:> B>340, :>340 ;N48 A >1I8<8 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8<8 @0AAB@>9AB20<8 2>A?@8=8<0NBAO :0: 1>;L=K5 A =0@CH5=85< A2>8E ?@>D5AA8>=0;L=KE 2>7<>6=>AB59 8 AB@040NI85 >B A2>8E >ICI5=89, ?@5>4>;5205BAO ?@54AB02;5=85 B>;L:> > 2708<>459AB288 =0@CH5==KE ?A8E8:8 8 A><K [P. Christian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chepank (1987) >1=0@C68; C 18% >1A;54>20==KE 74>@>2KE 68B5;59 0=359<0 >1I85 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:85 >ICI5=8O, 87 =8E C 8% >=8 1K;8 @0AF5=5=K :0: ?@>O2;5=8O 1>;57=8.  M:A?5@8<5=B0;L=KE >F5=:0E MB>9 ?>?C;OF88 [Honmann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onmann 8 A>02B., 1983]0;>1K% (N = 344)>71C48<>ABL74=CB@5==55 15A?>:>9AB2>7101K2G82>ABL70#B><;O5<>ABL69>;L 2 ?>OA=8F5 8 A?8=568!;C651=K5 8;8 ;8G=K5 701>BK65>;>2=0O 1>;L6402O7G82K5 <KA;864O;>ABL62=CB@5==OO =0?@O6Q==>ABL61!;01>ABL :>=F5=B@0F88 2=8<0=8O60 @8 40;L=59H5< CAC3C1;5=88 >1I8E A><0B8G5A:8E 60;>1 8 =0@CH5=88 A0<>GC2AB28O C 74>@>2KE ;N459 <>65B =0ABC?8BL =5B@C4>A?>A>1=>ABL A >D>@<;5=85< 1>;L=8G=>3> ;8AB0. > =01;N45=8O< . Schepank (1989), 38% =0A5;5=8O =5B@C4>A?>A>1=> 2 B5G5=85 4 =54 2 3>4C. @8 MB>< C ;8F A ?A8E8G5A:8<8 8 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8<8 >1I8<8 =0@CH5=8O<8 =5B@C4>A?>A>1=>ABL 8 ?@51K20=85 =0 1>;L=8G=>< ;8AB5 2AB@5G0NBAO 2 2 @070 G0I5 8 70BO3820NBAO =0 1>;55 4;8B5;L=K9 A@>:, G5< A@548 =0A5;5=8O 2 F5;><. @8 =01;N45=88 DC=:F8>=0;L=KE @0AAB@>9AB2 =0 >4=>< 87 ?@><KH;5==KE ?@54?@8OB89 R. Tlle 8 A. Ladas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ysenck, 1966; Thele, 1967; L. Delius 8 J. Fahrenberg, 1966]. H. Eysenck ?>4@07C<5205B ?>4 =52@>B8F87<>< 87=0G0;L=> A8;L=CN ;018;L=>ABL 2535B0B82=>9 =5@2=>9 A8AB5<K; L. Delius 3>2>@8B > =54>AB0B>G=>9 5Q ?>4G8=Q==>AB8.  @0<:0E ?@8254Q==>3> 2KH5 >?@545;5=8O >1I53> ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:>3> A8=4@><0 <K =5 <>65< 3>2>@8BL > 7=0G8<>AB8 A><0B8G5A:8E ?@>O2;5=89 :0: ?@8G8==>3> D0:B>@0, 0 B0:65 >1 C@>2=5 :>=AB0=B=>3> >4=>2@5<5==>3> 8 87<5=G82>3> =0@CH5=8O @53C;OF88. @8 >1I5< ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:>< A8=4@><5 <>3CB A>ACI5AB2>20BL =5A:>;L:> @07=>>1@07=KE =0@CH5=89. K >B3@0=8G8205< 8E >B G0AB=KE DC=:F8>=0;L=KE =0@CH5=89, :0: >=8 >?8A0=K 2KH5, =0?@8<5@, ?@8 :0@48>20A:C;O@=KE =0@CH5=8OE @53C;OF88. 0?@8<5@, >@B>AB0B8G5A:85 =0@CH5=8O @53C;OF88 E0@0:B5@87CNBAO A>>B25BAB285< <564C AC1J5:B82=K<8 60;>10<8 8 A>AB>O=85< 2535B0B82=KE DC=:F89. @8 >1I5< ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:>< A8=4@><5 =5B GQB:>3> A>>B25BAB28O <564C AB@C:BC@>9 60;>1 8 >?@545;Q==K<8 2535B0B82=K<8 A8<?B><0<8, :0: ?>:07K20NB =01;N45=8O ?>A;54=8E ;5B [J. Fahrenberg 8 . Myrtek, 1975; . Myrtek, 1978]. >=F5?F8O :>=AB0=B=>3> A>>B=>H5=8O 2K@065==>AB8 8 <=>3>>1@078O A><0B8G5A:8E >ICI5=89 8 AB5?5=8 =0@CH5=8O 2535B0B82=>9 @53C;OF88 2@O4 ;8 ?@02><5@=0 [. Myrtek, 1978]. <5NBAO, 2?@>G5<, B5A=K5 A2O78 <564C M<>F8>=0;L=>9 ;018;L=>ABLN, :>B>@0O <>65B @0AA<0B@820BLAO :0: =52@>B8G5A:89 ;8G=>AB=K9 D0:B>@, ?>4B25@6405<K9 B0:65 ?A8E>;>38G5A:8<8 B5AB0<8 8 G0AB>B>9 A><0B8G5A:8E 60;>1, => =5B A2O759 <564C 60;>10<8 8 >1J5:B82=> >?@545;O5<K<8 =0@CH5=8O<8 2535B0B82=KE DC:F89. "01;8F0 10'0AB>B0 DC=:F8>=0;L=KE 60;>1 C =5;5G82H8EAO 8 ;5G82H8EAO A>B@C4=8:>2 ?@><KH;5==>3> ?@54?@8OB8O [?> R. Tolle 8 A. Ladas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ysenck, 1968] 8 >1=0@C68205BAO A ?><>ILN ?A8E>;>38G5A:8E B5AB>2. 4=0:> B0:0O ;8G=>ABL E0@0:B5@87C5BAO B0:65 2KA>:>9 ?>7=020B5;L=>9 8 0DD5:B82=>9 48DD5@5=F8@>20==>ABLN. . Eysenck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hristian, 1981], ?>:070;8 2708<>A2O7L <564C ?@>D8;5< 60;>1 8;8 AC<<>9 60;>1 8 B>9 8;8 8=>9 @01>G59 A8BC0F859 =0 @07;8G=KE ?@><KH;5==KE ?@54?@8OB8OE 8 2 CG@5645=8OE. @8 A@02=5=88 40==KE >1A;54>20=8O @01>B=8:>2 ?@><KH;5==KE ?@54?@8OB89 ?> ?>H82C >4564K 1K;8 2KO2;5=K @07=K5 ?>:070B5;8 2 AC<<5 >1I8E 60;>1 8, 2 G0AB=>AB8, 2 AB5?5=8 2K@065==>AB8 G0AB> 2AB@5G0NI53>AO 1>;52>3> A8=4@><0 2 ?;5G0E 8 @C:0E. -B> ?@>O2;O;>AL 2 ?>2KH5==>9 701>;5205<>AB8, 7=0G8B5;L=>9 A<5=O5<>AB8 ?5@A>=0;0 8 2 1>;LH>< G8A;5 ?@>872>4AB25==KE B@02<. 0 ?@54?@8OB88, @01>B=8:8 :>B>@>3> 8<5NB 1>;LH>5 :>;8G5AB2> 60;>1, CA;>28O @01>BK E0@0:B5@87>20;8AL 45D8F8B>< 2@5<5=8, >4=>>1@0785< B@C40 ?@8 1>;55 2KA>:>< B@51>20=88 : B>G=>AB8 8A?>;=5=8O. 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IQ >:>;> =545;8 >=0 @01>B0;0, => 70B5< ?>ABC?8;0 =0 AB0F8>=0@=>5 ;5G5=85. >A;5 4-4=52=>3> ?@51K20=8O 2 :;8=8:5, :>B>@>5 1>;L=0O 2>A?@8=O;0 :0: >B4KE (O A@02=820N <>N 1>;57=L A >B?CA:><), 5Q A;CE 2>AAB0=>28;AO, => A B5E ?>@ ?@8 ?A8E8G5A:8E =03@C7:0E >=0 8A?KBK205B GC2AB2> 402;5=8O 8 72>= 2 CH0E. J. Neuser 8 ". ?>>@ (1986) 2 20 BI0B5;L=> ?@>:>=B@>;8@>20==KE =01;N45=8OE B0:65 >B<5B8;8 2KA>:>4>AB>25@=K5 @07;8G8O 2 =0;8G88 >BO3>I0NI8E, 5IQ =5 ?5@5@01>B0==KE 687=5==KE A8BC0F89 ?5@54 =0G0;>< 701>;520=8O. 07;8G8O ?A8E>?0B>;>38G5A:8E G5@B ;8G=>AB8, 2KO2;5==K5 A ?><>ILN :@0B:>3> 20@80=B0 MMPI, <5=55 >?@545;Q==K, E>BO 8 8<5NBAO >A>15==>AB8 2 >B45;L=KE 0A?5:B0E, =0?@8<5@ ?> H:0;0< 45?@5AA8O 8;8 8AB5@8O. "5< =5 <5=55 . Greuel (1983) C A2>8E ?0F85=B>2 >?8A0; 4065 B8?8G=K9 ?@>D8;L ;8G=>AB8, :>B>@K9 E0@0:B5@87>20;AO ?>AB>O==K< GC2AB2>< =0?@O6Q==>AB8 ?@8 =0;8G88 CAB0=>2>: =0 2K?>;=5=85 7040G8 8 4>AB865=85 F5;8, :>B>@K5 =8:>340 =5 7025@H0NBAO CA?5E><. -B8 ;N48 A>740NB A515 ?5@5=0?@O65=85 A0<8, 8 MB> @0=> 8;8 ?>74=> 2K;8205BAO 2 687=5==K9 :@878A. 53:> ?>440NI0OAO >?8A0=8N AB@C:BC@0 ;8G=>AB8 2 =0H8E =01;N45=8OE =5 1K;0 2KO2;5=0. J. Neuser 8 ". ?>>@ (1986) B0:65 ?@8H;8 : 70:;NG5=8N, GB> @0AAB@>9AB20 ;8G=>AB8 A>25@H5==> =5 >1O70B5;L=K :0: CA;>285 A=865=8O A;CE0 C 1>;L=KE. =8 8AB>;:>2K20NB 40==K5 MMPI :0: A;54AB285 701>;520=8O 8 ;8HL G0AB8G=> :0: A?5F8D8G5A:85 4;O ;8G=>AB8. 7 2A53>, GB> 8725AB=> > ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8E A2O7OE, :065BAO =525@>OB=K<, GB>1K >4=0 A?5F8D8G5A:0O (=0?@8<5@, ?A8E8G5A:0O) :>=AB5;;OF8O ?@825;0 : >4=>9 A><0B8G5A:>9 A8<?B><0B8:5. 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"0:85 D0:B>@K, :0: 0@B5@80;L=0O 38-?5@B5=78O, A0E0@=K9 48015B 8;8 38?5@;8?845<8O, 459AB2CNB A:>@55 :0: E@>=8G5A:0O 4>?>;=8B5;L=0O 2@54=>ABL, A?>A>1AB2CO ?0B>;>38G5A:8< 87<5=5=8O< AB5=>: A>AC4>2 8 0=38>A:;5@>7C. @C385 <5E0=87<K A>AC48AB>3> ?>@065=8O 2=CB@5==53> CE0, =0?@8<5@ <8:@>M<1>;88 8;8 70A>@5=85, B.5. >1@0B8<0O 70:C?>@:0 A>AC40 M@8B@>F8B0<8, <>3CB 1KBL 2>A?@>872545=K 2 M:A?5@8<5=B0E =0 682>B=KE, => 8E :;8=8G5A:0O 7=0G8<>ABL 5IQ =5OA=0.  2AQ 65 70A>@5=85 ?@82;5:05B : A515 >A>1>5 2=8<0=85 2 ?0B>35=5B8G5A:>< ?;0=5, B0: :0: 8725AB=>, GB> ?>4 2;8O=85< AB@5AA0 CA8;8205BAO A;8?G82>ABL B@><1>F8B>2 8 B0:8< ?CBQ< <>3CB @0728BLAO 70<54;5=85 8 4065 ?>;=0O 1;>:040 A>AC48AB>9 F8@:C;OF88 2> 2=CB@5==5< CE5. "5@0?8O. @8 >F5=:5 @07=KE B5@0?52B8G5A:8E <5B>4>2 A;54C5B >1@0I0BL 2=8<0=85 ?@5645 2A53> =0 2>7<>6=>ABL A?>=B0==>3> 2K74>@>2;5=8O, :>B>@>5 >B<5G05BAO 2 50-86% A;CG052.  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Tellenbach, 1983]. !;54C5B ?>4G5@:=CBL, GB> <0=8D5AB0F8O 8<5==> M=4>35==KE ?A8E>7>2 =5@54:> 2>A?@8=8<05BAO :0: A8BC0F8>==> ?>=OB=0O, 0 2 8E ?A8E8G5A:>9 :0@B8=5 ?@>O2;ONBAO 87<5=5=8O G5@B ;8G=>AB8, :>B>@K5 <>6=> >1=0@C68BL 2 ?@5<>@1845 C 1>;L=>3> 8 2 53> A5<59=>< >:@C65=88. !0<>AB>OB5;L=>ABL 8 A2>5>1@0785 ?@>F5AAC0;L=KE 70:>=><5@=>AB59 ?A8E>B8G5A:8E ?@>F5AA>2, A 4@C3>9 AB>@>=K, C:07K20NB =0 A><0B8G5A:85 70:>=><5@=>AB8. 0: 8 ?@8 1>;LH8=AB25 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8E 701>;520=89, 8<5NBAO <=>3>G8A;5==K5 C:070=8O =0 =0A;54AB25==> >1CA;>2;5==K5 D0:B>@K @8A:0 ?@8 ?A8E>70E.  ?A8E>B8G5A:>< >B=>H5=88 : <8@C ?@>O2;ONBAO, E>BO 8 2 87<5=Q==>9 D>@<5, >1I5G5;>25G5A:85 CAB0=>2:8, :>B>@K5 ?>425@30NB 0=B@>?>;>38G5A:>9 8=B5@?@5B0F88 :0: 0;85=0F8N (>BGC645=85). @8BO30B5;L=0O A8;0 8 AB@0E, :>B>@K5 <>3CB 8AE>48BL >B ?A8E>B8G5A:>3> 1>;L=>3>, 8<5NB A2>N >A=>2C 2 1;87>AB8 : G5;>25G5A:><C 1KB8N. 7;8H=5 0;LB5@=0B82=> 72CG8B 402=89 2>?@>A: (>@30==K9) ?@>F5AA 8;8 (;8G=>AB=>5) @0728B85"? !>2@5<5==K5 :>=F5?F88, 2KB5:0NI85 87 ?A8E>;>38G5A:8E 8AA;54>20=89 ;8G=>AB=>9 AB@C:BC@K 8 5Q =0@CH5=89 ?5@54 =0G0;>< 701>;520=8O, ?>:07K20NB, GB> M=4>35==K5 ?A8E>B8G5A:85 ?@>F5AAK <>3CB 1KBL ?@8<5@>< A><0B>?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8E A2O759. 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h. Mundt, 1991]. 0B>35=57. >6=> ;8 =09B8 2 MB>< ?@>F5AA5 A><0B>?A8E>A><0B8G5A-:85 A2O78?  8AB>@88 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:>3> 8AA;54>20=8O H87>D@5=88 @5H8B5;L=K9 H03 2?5@Q4 1K; A45;0= B>340, :>340 ?5@5AB0;8 >BKA:820BL B>;L:> GC64K5 ;8G=>AB8, 8AE>4OI85 87 >:@C65=8O B@02<K 8 2@54=K5 2;8O=8O, =0?@8<5@, H87>D@5=>35==>9 <0B5@8 8;8 H87>D@5=>35==>9 A5<59=>9 A8AB5<K. ;O =0A;54AB25==> >1CA;>2;5==KE A2O759 1;87:8 8 ?>=OB=K ?>8A:8 >A>15==>AB59 87=0G0;L=>9 ;8G=>AB8 8 B8?8G=KE 4;O =5Q D>@< ?5@5@01>B:8 >:@C60NI53> <8@0. >=OB85 ;8G=>ABL @8A:0 A B5G5=85< 2@5<5=8 1K;> ?5@5@01>B0=> 2 @07;8G=K5 <>45;8 ;8G=>AB8. :BC0;L=0 8 C1548B5;L=0 2 MB>< >B=>H5=88 B5>@8O ?>2KH5==>9 @0=8<>AB8. =0 ?>:07K205B, GB> 1C4CI89 1>;L=>9 =0 >A=>25 2@>64Q==>9 @0=8<>AB8 ;8G=>AB8 5IQ 4> =0G0;0 701>;520=8O @8A:C5B 8 ?5@5=0?@O305BAO ?@8 ?5@5@01>B:5 A;8H:>< <=>3>G8A;5==KE 8 ?@>B82>@5G82KE ?>7=020B5;L=KE 8 0DD5:B82=KE O2;5=89 8 2?5G0B;5=89. -B> 70B@C4=O5B 8 157 B>3> >3@0=8G5==K5 2>7<>6=>AB8 A>74020BL =0 4;8B5;L=K9 A@>: 157>?0A=CN D>@<C ACI5AB2>20=8O. 5C25@5==>ABL 8 =5AB018;L=>ABL 2 AB@C:BC@8@>20=88 A2>59 687=8 [Ch. Mundt, 1991] ?@82>4OB : :@878AC 8 <0=8D5AB0F88 701>;520=8O 2 B0:85 ?5@8>4K, :>340 2>7=8:05B =5>1E>48<>ABL 2 A0<>AB>OB5;L=>AB8 8 CE>45 87 @>48B5;LA:>3> 4><0, 2 2K?>;=5=88 @01>BK 8 CAB0=>2;5=88 A2O759 A >:@C60NI8<8 ;N4L<8. 5>1E>48<>ABL A>740=8O A>1AB25==>3> <8@0 8 >B3@0=8G5=8O 53> >B <8@0 >:@C60NI8E ;N459, =0E>645=8O A>1AB25==>9 AB@C:BC@K A ?>AB>O==>9 8 ?@>G=>9 @50;L=>ABLN 2 >:@C60NI5< <8@5 ?@52KH05B 8=B53@0B82=K5 2>7<>6=>AB8 ;8G=>AB8 8 ?@82>48B : 45:><?5=A0F88. 5AB> ?>=OB=>3> >B=>H5=8O : <8@C, >15A?5G820NI53> C25@5==>ABL 8 A0<>C2065=85, 70=8<05B CB@0B0 5AB5AB25==>9 A0<>@07C<55<>AB8 [W. Blankenburg, 1971]. !><0B8G5A:8 1>;57=5==K9 ?@>F5AA =5;L7O >4=>7=0G=> >1JOA=8BL 18>E8<8G5A:8<8 40==K<8 8;8 A?5F8D8G5A:8<8 ?>:070B5;O<8 8AA;54>20=8O <>730. @8 <=>65AB25 >B45;L=KE =0E>4>: 2 F5;>< C:07K205BAO =0 45D8F8B DC=:F8>=0;L=>9 8=B53@0F88 F5=B@0;L=>9 =5@2=>9 A8AB5<K [Ch. Mundte, 1991]. IQ <5=55 OA=>, :0:85 A><0B8G5A:85 ?@>F5AAK A>?@>2>640NB ?A8E>B8G5A:>5 E@>=8G5A:>5 701>;520=85 8 ?@82>4OB : AB>9:8< 87<5=5=8O<. @30=8G5A:89 AC1AB@0B ?A8E>B8G5A:>3> 45D5:B0 5IQ =5 >1=0@C65=.  A><0B8G5A:8E ?@>F5AA0E ?@8 M=4>35==KE ?A8E>70E H87>D@5=8G5A:>3> 8 <0=80:0;L=>-45?@5AA82=>3> :@C30 >B<5G05BAO 8=0O D>@<0 A><0B8G5A:>3> @5038@>20=8O, G5< ?@8 B@02<0B8G5A:8E, 2>A?0;8B5;L=KE 8;8 B>:A8G5A:8E 2;8O=8OE, :>B>@K5 254CB : >@30=8G5A:><C ?A8E>A8=4@><C. !><0B8G5A:85 ?@>F5AAK ?@8 M=4>35==KE ?A8E>70E >1>7=0G0NB :0: =5?@O<>5 >?>A@54>20==>5 >@30=8G5A:>5 CA;>285 [Ch. Mundt, 1991]. G5284=>, >=8 ?@54AB02;ONB A>1>9 =5:89 >B=>AOI89AO : 2A5<C >@30=87<C ?@>F5AA, 2 :>B>@>< ?@>O2;ONBAO A><0B8G5A:8 >?8AK205<K5, DC=:F8>=0;L=> ?>43>B>2;5==K5 D>@<K @50:F89. -B> 8 5ABL =5GB>, GB> A2O7K205B M=4>35==K5 ?A8E>7K A :;0AA8G5A:8<8 ?A8E>A><0B8G5A:8<8 D>@<0<8 1>;57=8. "5@0?8O. 07@01>B0==K5 ?>A;5 2B>@>9 <8@>2>9 2>9=K 8=48284C0;L=0O, =0F5;5==0O =0 :>=D;8:B, ?A8E>0=0;8B8G5A:8 >@85=B8@>20==0O ?A8E>B5@0?8O 8 A5<59=>-B5@0?52B8G5A:85 @0A:@K20NI85 <5B>48:8 =5 <>3CB ?@>B82>AB>OBL ?> A2>5<C 7=0G5=8N D0@<0:>B5@0?88. A8E>B5@0?52B8G5A:0O CAB0=>2:0, =0@O4C A =04;8G=>AB=>9 2;0ABLN 1>;57=8 =0?@02;5==0O =0 ?>7=0=85 ;8G=>AB8 1>;L=>3> 8 2>72@0I5=85 53> 2 AD5@C A>F80;L=>9 687=8, O2;O5BAO 2=52@5<5==>9 7040G59 ?A8E80B@8G5A:>3> ;5G5=8O. !>2@5<5==0O ?A8E>D0@<0:>B5@0?8O 459AB2C5B =0 ?5@56820=8O 1>;L=>3> 2 ?;0=5 AB018;870F88 53> M<>F8>=0;L=>3> A>AB>O=8O. >;L=K5 A0<8 >B<5G0NB, GB> 8E <KH;5=85 AB0=>28BAO 1>;55 OA=K< 8 C?>@O4>G5==K<, >=8 3>2>@OB, :@><5 ?@>G53>, >1 C<5=LH5=88 ;53:>25A=>AB8 <KH;5=8O [. Windgassen, 1990]. -B> >7=0G05B >A;01;5=85 =0?@O6Q==>AB8 2 ?>7=020B5;L=>< 8 >1@07=>< ?A8E8G5A:>< ?>;5 4> 8 2> 2@5<O ?A8E>70. !>2@5<5==0O >:@C60NI0O A@540, >@85=B8@>20==0O A>F80;L=>-B5@0?52B8G5A:8, ?@54>AB02;O5B 1>;L=><C A@02=8B5;L=> 4>ABC?=>5 68;8I5 8 ?>A8;L=>5 ?@>D5AA8>=0;L=>5 70=OB85. 5>1E>48<0 B0:65 A5<59=0O A@540 A <8=8<0;L=K<8 @074@060NI8<8 8 :>=D;8:B=K<8 A8BC0F8O<8, :>B>@0O >3@0640;0 1K 1>;L=>3> >B 2>7459AB28O =5>6840==KE, GC64KE 5<C 8 ?@>B82>@5G82KE 2?5G0B;5=89 8 ?5@56820=89 [Ciompi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feiffer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ellenbach, 1983], 0 B0:65 48=0<8G5A:>5 A45@6820=85 [W. Janzarik, 1988], 8 >?8AK20NBAO 48DD5@5=F8@>20==>. @8 <0=88 G5;>25: =0E>48BAO 2 =0AB>OI5< 8 ?>AB>O==> AB@5<8BAO 2 1C4CI55, =5:@8B8G5= 2 >B=>H5=88 A2>8E @50;L=KE 2>7<>6=>AB59. -=4>35==CN 45?@5AA8N <>6=> >E0@0:B5@87>20BL :0: D>@<C @0A?040 ?>4286=>AB8 0DD5:B>2 [Ch. Mundt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der, R., D.L. Feiten, N. 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