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[(a.)] 8:0:85 70:>=K @07C<0 =5 >A2>1>4OB 20A >B >3@0=8G5=89, =0:;04K205<KE @50;L=K<8 D0:B0<8. 52>7<>6=> >B@8F0BL, GB> 2A5 MB8 8=B5;;5:BC0;L=K5 D5=><5=K, 2A5 MB8 A?5F8D8G5A:85 A2>9AB20 =5<0B5@80;L=>9 4CH8, 2A5 MB8 548=AB25==K5 A2845B5;LAB20 55 ACI5AB2>20=8O O2;ONBAO B0:65 A2>9AB20<8 B5;0, 81> B0<, 345 =5B =5@2=KE 0??0@0B>2, :0:, =0?@8<5@, C @0AB5=89, B0< >=8 =8:>340 =5 ?>O2;ONBAO, >=8 =5 ?>O2;ONBAO B0:65 C 70@>4KH0 8 C @515=:0, ?>:0 C =53> =5 @07>2LNBAO 1>;LH85 ?>;CH0@8O. "0<, 345 =5@2=0O A8AB5<0 @0AAB@>5=0 2 @57C;LB0B5 ?>2@5645=8O, 1>;57=8 8;8 2>7459AB28O ;5:0@AB20, MB8 D5=><5=K B0:65 @0AAB@0820NBAO 8;8 4065 8AG570NB. >340 C<8@05B B5;> 8 =5@2=0O A8AB5<0 2<5AB5 A =8<, 2A5 MB8 D5=><5=K ?@5:@0I0NBAO 8 1572>72@0B=> 8AG570NB. K =8:>340 =5 8<55<, =0A:>;L:> A>>1I0NB [=0<] =0H8 GC2AB20, =8 <0;59H53> A2845B5;LAB20 ACI5AB2>20=8O :0:>9-;81> >AB0NI59AO ACI=>AB8, :>B>@0O, 1C4CG8 A2O70=0 A B5;>< 2 B5G5=85 687=8, >B45;8;0AL 1K >B =53> ?@8 A<5@B8. -B> <>6=> 1K;> 1K CB25@640BL, => =5 8<55BAO =8 548=>3> D0:B0, :>B>@K9 <>3 1K MB> 4>:070BL: :>340 C<8@05B B5;>, =5B 1>;55 =8 2>A?@8OB8O, =8 ?0<OB8, =8 2545=8O. 0A:>;L:> <K <>65< 2845BL, >=8 C<8@0NB 2<5AB5 A B5;>< 8 =5 ?@>O2;ONB =8:0:>3> ?@87=0:0 A2>53> ?>A;54CNI53> ACI5AB2>20=8O. -B8 D5=><5=K, AB0;> 1KBL, D5=><5=K B5;0: 5A;8 1K >=8 B0:65 1K;8 D5=><5=0<8 4CH8, B> 8 4CH0 ?>4>1=> B5;C 1K;0 1K <0B5@80;L=>9, 81> >=0 8<5;0 1K >1I85 A =8< A2>9AB20. (b). >340 3>2>@OB, GB> 4CH0 <>65B ACI5AB2>20BL ?>A;5 B>3>, :0: B5;> AB0;> <5@B2K< 8 @0A?0;>AL, O >B25G0N: 4CH0 <>65B B0:65 8 =5 ACI5AB2>20BL: >4=> ?@54?>;>65=85 AB>;L 65 25@=>, :0: 8 4@C3>5. A?><=8B5 > B><, GB> =54>?CAB8<> ?@8 4>1@>A>25AB=>9 0@3C<5=B0F88 AG8B0BL A0<> A>1>9 @07C<5NI8<AO ACI5AB2>20=85 25I8 B>;L:> =0 B>< >A=>20=88, GB> >=0, <>65B 1KBL, ACI5AB2C5B. A;8 2K CB25@6405B5 55 ACI5AB2>20=85, <K 4>;6=K 4>:070BL 20H5 CB25@645=85. Affirmantis est probare. A posse ad esse non valet consequentia 7. (A). A;8 :B>-;81> A:065B, GB> MB8 A2>9AB20 B>;L- :> ?5@5AB0NB ACI5AB2>20BL =0 2@5<O, O E>B5; 1K C =53> 2KOA=8BL, :0:CN 845N >= A>548=O5B A MB>9 2@5<5==>9 ?@8>AB0=>2:>9, 8<55B ;8 >= 2 284C GB>-;81> 8=>5, :@><5 B>3>, GB> >=8 [A2>9AB20] ?5@5AB0NB ACI5AB2>20BL =0 MB> 2@5<O. 5;> >1AB>8B B0:, GB> ;81> =8G53> 4@C3>3> =5 8<55BAO 2 284C, ;81> ?@54?>;0305BAO =5GB> ?@O<> ?@>B82>@5G0I55 D0:B0<. >;55 B>3>, 5A;8 1K ?>4@07C<520;>AL =5GB> 1>;LH55, ;53:> <>6=> 1K;> 1K 4>:070BL, GB> ?@54?>;0305BAO 8725G=>5 ?@54ACI5AB2>20=85 (archetypical existence) 01AB@0:B=KE 8459. -B>  ?@81;865=85 : ?;0B>=>2A:8< =5;5?>ABO<, 284>87<5=5==K< ?@54CAB0=>2;5==>9 30@<>=859 591=8F0, :>B>@CN, :0: O ?>;030N, =52>7<>6=> 70I8I0BL 2 =0H8 4=8. @><5 B>3>, <>6=> ?>:070BL, GB> ?>4>1=K9 A:@KBK9 (ulterior) A<KA; ?@>B82>@5G8B <0:A8<5 impossibile est idem esse et non esse8.· -B> 2;5G5B 70 A>1>9 3@0<<0B8G5A:CN =5;5?>ABL C?>B@51;5=8O ?@8;030B5;L=>3> A0<>3> ?> A515 157 ACI5AB28B5;L=>3>. (d). A;8 :B>-;81> A:065B, 40;55, GB> «MB8 4CE>2=K5 (mental) D5=><5=K O2;ONBAO =5 A>AB02=K<8 G0ABO<8, 0 459AB28O<8 4CH8 8 A2845B5;LAB20<8 55 ACI5AB2>20=8O, B0: GB> 4CH0 <>65B ?@>4>;60BL ACI5AB2>20BL 8 B>340, :>340 >=0 1>;LH5 =5 459AB2C5B 8;8 =5 459AB2C5B 8<5==> B0:8< A?>A>1><, 81> 87 B>3>, GB> G5;>25: ?>B5@O; >@C48O 8;8 8=AB@C<5=BK, A ?><>ILN :>B>@KE >= >1KG=> @01>B05B, 2>2A5 =5 A;54C5B, GB> C=8GB>68;0AL 8 53> A?>A>1=>ABL @01>B0BL», B> O =0 MB> >B25GC: 1. AO:89 @07, :>340 A2845B5;LAB20 ACI5AB2>20=8O 25I8 2>7=8:0NB 87 55 A>1AB25==>9 ?@8@>4K 8 AB@C:BC@K, >=8 O2;ONBAO A8=>=8<0<8 55 A2>9AB2. "0:>2K<8 O2;ONBAO D5=><5=K <KH;5=8O ?> >B=>H5=8N : 4CH5, >=8 2K@060NB 55 8AB8==CN ACI=>ABL. / =5 <>3C 40BL 1>;55 C1548B5;L=>5 ?>OA=5=85, G5< C65 ?@54;>65==>5; ?CABL <>9 G8B0B5;L, 5A;8 >= O2;O5BAO <8=5@0;>3><, >?8H5B :0:>9-=81C4L <8=5@0;, 0 70B5< ?@54?>;>68B, GB> 2A5 53> E0@0:B5@=K5 >A>15==>AB8 8AG57;8. 2. "0: :0: MB8<8 8=B5;;5:BC0;L=K<8 D5=><5=0<8 8AG5@?K20NBAO 2A5 A2845B5;LAB20, :>B>@K5 <K 8<55< > ACI5AB2>20=88 4CH8, B> :>340 >=8 @07@CH5=K 8;8 C30A;8, B> 65 A0<>5 ?@>8AE>48B 8 A 2K2>4><, :>B>@K9 872;5G5= 87 =8E. >340 8AG570NB 25A ?@87=0:8 ACI5AB2>20=8O 687=8, :064K9 157 :>;510=8O A:065B, GB> 8AG57;0 8 A0<0 687=L. 3. =AB@C<5=BK, :>B>@K5 G5;>25: >1KG=> C?>B@51;O5B @01>B0O, A>AB02;ONB B>;L:> <0;CN G0ABL, => =5 ?>;=>ABLN 2A5 A2845B5;LAB20 53> A?>A>1=>AB8 @01>B0BL. >340 >= CB@0B8B A2>8 GC2AB20, A2>8 @C:8, A2>N A?>A>1=>ABL 2>;5=8O 8 A?>A>1=>ABL : ?@>872>;L=><C 42865=8N, :>B>@K5 B0:65 O2;ONBAO >1I8<8 A2845B5;LAB20<8 53> A?>A>1=>AB8 @01>B0BL, :064K9 A:065B, GB> >= CB@0B8; 8 MBC A?>A>1=>ABL, B. 5. GB> >=0 1>;LH5 =5 ACI5AB2C5B. 4. ! B0:8< 65 ?@02><, =0?@8<5@, <>6=> 1K;> 1K CB25@640BL 2 >B=>H5=88 7>;>B0, GB> 53> A2>9AB20, =07K205<K5 ACI5AB25==K<8 8 E0@0:B5@=K<8, =5 1>;55 G5< 459AB28O 8 A2845B5;LAB20 ACI5AB2>20=8O AC1AB0=F88 7>;>B0, :>B>@0O-45 <>65B ?@>4>;60BL ACI5AB2>20BL =5A<>B@O =0 B> GB> =5 >1=0@C68205B 1>;LH5 =8 >4=>3> 87 B5E D5=><5=>2, :>B>@K5 =07K20NBAO 53> A2>9AB20<8, => 2 459AB28B5;L=>AB8 O2;ONBAO B>;L:> 2@5<5==K<8 A2845B5;LAB20<8 53> ACI5AB2>20=8O. 0725 <>65B :0:>9-;81> @07C<=K9 G5;>25: ?@87=0BL A?@0254;82>ABL MB>3> 0@3C<5=B0? 5. A;8 4>?CA:05BAO C<>70:;NG5=85 a posse ad esse a potentia ad actum9, 872;5G5==>5 87 >B40;5==59H8E 2>7<>6=>AB59 ACI5AB2>20=8O, B>340 2>>1I5 <>6=> 4>:07K20BL ACI5AB2>20=85 ;N1>9 25I8 2>?@5:8 2A5< 4>:070B5;LAB20< ?@>B82=>3>. 0725 =5 AB0=5B @0AA<0B@820BL 2@0G (a physician) :0: AC<0AH54H53> B>3> G5;>25:0, :>B>@K9 3>2>@8; 1K ?5@54 @07;030NI8<AO B5;><, GB>, E>BO 8 «=5A><=5==>, =8 >4=> 87 459AB289, :>B>@K5 ACBL ?@87=0:8 687=8, 2 =0AB>OI55 2@5<O =5 >1=0@C68205BAO, 687=L <>65B ?@>4>;60BL ACI5AB2>20BL»? 5. (0). A5 A>>B=>A8B5;L=K5 B5@<8=K ?@54?>;030NB ACI5AB2>20=85 A2>8E :>@@5;OB>2: G5;>25: =5 <>65B 1KBL >BF><, =5 8<5O @515=:0, <C65<  =5 8<5O 65=K 8 B. 4. > 5A;8 >48= 87 42CE :>@@5;OB>2 ?5@5AB05B ACI5AB2>20BL, B> MB> 65 ?@>8AE>48B @02=K< >1@07>< 8 A 4@C38<. (b). A5 B5 8458, :>B>@K5 >1@07CNB =0HC 845N 4CH8, 8;8, 8=0G5 3>2>@O, 2A5 B5 A2>9AB20, 87 :>B>@KE <K 2K2>48< 55 ACI5AB2>20=85, A>>B=>A8B5;L=K. E :>@@5;OB0<8 O2;ONBAO 8458. "0:8< >1@07><, =5 <>65B 1KBL 2>A?@8OB8O 157 8459, :>B>@K5 2>A?@8=8<0NBAO, 2>A?@>872545=8O 157 8459, :>B>@K5 2A?><8=0NBAO, AC645=8O 157 8459, :>B>@K5 A@02=820NBAO, 2>;8 157 8459 >1J5:B>2, ?> >B=>H5=8N : :>B>@K< >=0 >ACI5AB2;O5BAO. (A). >:: ?>:070;, GB> C =0A =5B 2@>645==KE 8459, GB> 2A5 =0H8 8458 O2;ONBAO 845O<8 >ICI5=8O 8;8 @5D;5:A88 8 GB> 8458 @5D;5:A88 =5 GB> 8=>5, :0: >?5@0F88 C<0 (mind), [?@>872>48<K5] A =0H8<8 845O<8 >ICI5=8O. -B> 7=0G8B, GB> 2A5 =0H8 8458 ?@>8AE>4OB 87 2?5G0B;5=89, ?@>872545==KE =0 =0H8 GC2AB20, 8 >A=>2K20NBAO =0 MB8E 2?5G0B;5=8OE. #G5=85 4@52=59 H:>;K 1K;> B5< 65 A0<K<: nil inquam fuit in intellectu, quod non prius erat in sensu10, 2:;NG0O 2=CB@5==85 GC2AB20 B0: 65, :0: 8 2=5H=85. -B> =5 <5=55 8AB8==>, G5< 2A5 4@C3>5, ?@87=0==>5 8AB8==K< <C4@59H8<8 ;N4L<8 4@52=>AB8 *. / 7=0N > «A?>A>1- ">, GB> =081>;55 >A254><;5==K5 A>2@5<5==K5 ?8A0B5;8 ?@845@6820NBAO B>3> 65 A0<>3> CG5=8O 8 GB> 2A5 D5=><5=K, =07K205<K5 ?A8E8G5A:8<8, O2;ONBAO ;8HL 2>71C645=8O<8 =5@2=>9 A8AB5<K, O CB25@640N, >?8@0OAL =0 02B>@8B5B 010=8A0, 8H0 ?, ;N<5=10E0 12, 8H5@0=0 13, 060=48 14, B0: 65 :0: 8 0@B;8, 0@28=0, @8AB;8 8 >C@5=A015. -;5<5=B0@=K5 B@C4K 8H0, 8H5@0=0, ;N<5=10E0 8 060=48 >1KG=> 87CG0NBAO 2> 2A5E =0H8E <548F8=A:8E H:>;0E... '8B0B5;L <>65B >1=0@C68BL, GB> =081>;55 >A254><;5==K5 8 02B>@8B5B=K5 ?8A0B5;8 ?> D878>;>388 ?@8=8<0NB C:070==CN 2 B5:AB5 ;0B8=A:CN 0:A8><C 4>A;>2=> 8;8 ?> ACI5AB2C. "0:, 0;;5@... >?8AK205B >ICI5=8O :0: 0DD5:B0F88 2>A?@8=8<0NI53> <>730... 8 >48= G5;>25: =5 2?@025 ?8A0BL > <5B0D878:5 8 D5=><5=0E 8=B5;;5:B0, =5 8<5O >A=>20B5;L=KE ?>7=0=89 2 D878>;>388  B>9 >1;0AB8 7=0=8O, 2 :>B>@>9 H>B;0=4A:0O H:>;0 <5B0D878:>2 ?@8A:>@1=> =5 >A254><;5=0. / =5 E>B5; 1K 2:;NG0BL 4-@0 ". @0C=0 2 MBC B8@04C, =0?@02;5==CN ?@>B82 53> ?>25@E=>AB=KE 8 4>3<0B8G5A:8E ?@54H5AB25==8:>2. / A>3;0A5= A =8<, GB> A?>A>1=>ABL (power) 8 ?@8G8==>ABL ACBL B>;L:> A;>20 8 =5>B45;8<K >B @50;L=KE ?@54H5AB2CNI8E 8 ?>A;54CNI8E [D5=><5=>2], : :>B>@K< >=8 >B=>AOBAO, 8 GB> =0H0 25@0 2 B>, GB> 2 AE>4=KE >1AB>OB5;LAB20E AE>4=K< ?@54H5AB2CNI8< [O2;5=8O<] =587<5==> A>?CBAB2CNB AE>4=K5 ?>A;54CNI85, 5ABL A:>@55 8=BC8F8O, G5< (@57C;LB0B] ?@>F5AA0 @07<KH;5=8O. /, >4=0:>, >G5=L 1>NAL, GB> 5<C =5 C40;>AL >1>9B8 B@C4=>AB8 N<>2A:>3> 0@3C<5=B0 ?@>B82 GC45A... @0C= B5< =5 <5=55 OA=> <KA;OI89 8 A?>A>1=K9 <5B0D878:, >4=0:> <5B0D878: H>B;0=4A:>9 H:>;K, :>B>@CN E0@0:B5@87C5B ?>@078B5;L=>5 83=>@8@>20=85 2A5E D878>;>38G5A:8E D0:B>2. =>ABOE 4CE0» (mind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d). > 5A;8 2A5 =0H8 8458 ?@>8AE>4OB 87 2?5G0B;5=89, ?@>872545==KE =0 =0H8 GC2AB20, B>, ?>A:>;L:C MB8 >@30=K O2;ONBAO A>25@H5==> B5;5A=K<8, <K =8:>340 =5 <>65< ?@8>1@5AB8 8458 2=5 B5;0; MB> 7=0G8B, GB> 2=5 B5;0 =5 8<5;>AL 1K =8:0:8E D5=><5=>2 2>A?@8OB8O, 2>A?@>872545=8O (recollection), AC645=8O 8;8 2>;8; MB> 7=0G8B, GB> =5 8<5;>AL 1K =8 >4=>3> 87 B5E D5=><5=>2 <KH;5=8O, 87 :>B>@KE <K 454CF8@C5< ACI5AB2>20=85 4CH8, =8 >4=>3> 87 A2>9AB2 4CH8 2=5 B5;0; 4@C38<8 A;>20<8, 157 B5;0 =5 1K;> 1K 8 4CH8. "0:8< >1@07><, =0G0;> ACI5AB2>20=8O 4CH8 7028A8B >B =0G0;0 ACI5AB2>20=8O B5;0. "0:>2> D0:B8G5A:>5 ?>;>65=85. (e). > 8<<0B5@80;8AB 3>2>@8B: 4CH0, GB> :0A05BAO 55 ACI5AB2>20=8O, >B;8G=0 8 =57028A8<0 >B B5;0; A;54>20B5;L=>, >=0 8 7028A8B 8 =5 7028A8B >B B5;0, 0 MB> 7=0G8B, GB> >=0 =5 ACI5AB2C5B, ?>A:>;L:C ?@>B82>?>;>6=>AB8 =5 <>3CB A>ACI5AB2>20BL. #AB0=>282, GB> ?@54H5AB2CNI55 15AA<5@B85 4CH8 8GB>, @0AA<>B@8< 55 15AA<5@B85 2 1C4CI5<. 6. (0). A5 2?5G0B;5=8O, 2>7459AB2>202H85 =0 =0H8 GC2AB20, <>3CB >AB028BL A;54 2?;>BL 4> 2=CB@5==8E GC2AB2CNI8E >:>=G0=89 B5E =5@2>2, :>B>@K5 8A?KB0;8 2?5G0B;5=85, => =5 40;55. (b). >340 2?5G0B;5=85 ?@>872545=> =0 =0H8 GC2AB20 ?>A@54AB2>< 2=5H=8E >1J5:B>2, <K A>E@0=O5< A2>9AB2> 2>A?@8OB8O 459AB28O 2?5G0B;5=8O 2 B5G5=85 >?@545;5==>3> ?5@8>40 8 ?>A;5 B>3>, :0: ?5@2>=0G0;L=>5 2?5G0B;5=85 ?@5:@0B8;>AL. -B>  ?0<OBL O 2>A?@>872545=85. >MB><C, E>BO 2A5 =0H8 8458 2K720=K 2?5G0B;5=8O<8, ?5@2>=0G0;L=> 2>7459AB2>202H8<8 =0 =0H8 GC2AB20, <K <>65< CB@0B8BL >4=> 8;8 420 87 =0H8E GC2AB2 8 2A5-B0:8 2A?><8=0BL 8458, :>B>@K5 O2;ONBAO 459AB28O<8 2?5G0B;5=89, ?@5645 ?@>872545==KE =0 MB8 GC2AB20. (c). > 157 =5@2=>9 A8AB5<K 8458 B0:65 =5 <>3CB 1KBL 2>A?><8=05<K<8, :0: >=8 =5 <>3CB 1KBL ?5@2>=0G0;L=> 2K720=K 157 [>@30=>2] GC2AB2. A5 MB> O2;O5BAO >G5284=K<. (d). >340 =0ABC?05B A<5@BL, >4=0:>, @07@CH0NBAO =5 B>;L:> 2A5 =0H8 GC2AB20 (548=AB25==K9 8AB>G=8: ?5@2>=0G0;L=KE 8459), => 8 A0<0 =5@2=0O A8AB5<0, O2;ONI0OAO sine qua non20 ACI5AB2>20=8O 2K720==KE ?@5645 8459. >MB><C, :>340 =0ABC?05B A<5@BL, @07@CH0NBAO 2A5 =0H8 8458 ;N1>3> @>40. (e). > 157 8459 =5 <>3CB ACI5AB2>20BL =8:0:85 A2>9AB20 4CH8, ?>B><C GB> >=8 A>>B=>A8B5;L=K 8 :>@@5;OB82=K; 0 5A;8 @07@CH0NBAO 2A5 A2>9AB20 4CH8, B> @07@CH05BAO 8 A0<0 4CH0. (f). >MB><C, GB> 1K =8 A;CG0;>AL ?@8 687=8 B5;0, 4CH0 =5 ACI5AB2C5B 4> =53> 8 @07@CH05BAO, :>340 >=> @07@CH05BAO. (g).  :>340 ?@87=05BAO, GB> 2 B5G5=85 687=8 <=>385 >1AB>OB5;LAB20 <>3CB ?>;=>ABLN @07@CH8BL =0 2@5<O 2A5 A2>9AB20 4CH8, 5420 ;8 AB>8B A?>@8BL > B>< =57=0G8B5;L=>< ACI5AB2>20=88, :>B>@>5 >AB05BAO. (h). > :>340, 40;55, ?@87=05BAO, GB> 5AB5AB25==>5 15AA<5@B85 4CH8 5ABL, :0: ?@54?>;0305BAO, =5>1E>48<>5 A;54AB285 55 =5<0B5@80;L=>AB8, B> 87 MB>3> =5>1E>48<> A;54C5B, GB> =5<0B5@80;L=>9 4CH8 2>>1I5 =5 ACI5AB2C5B. 6. [(a) ]. 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